High voltage temperature limited heaters

ABSTRACT

A heater system may include an alternating current supply and an electrical conductor. An alternating current may be applied to one or more electrical conductors at a voltage above about 200 volts. The electrical conductors may be located in a formation. The electrical conductors may provide an electrically resistive heat output upon application of the alternating electrical current. At least one of the electrical conductors may include an electrically resistive ferromagnetic material. An electrical conductor may provide a reduced amount of heat above or near a selected temperature. Heat may be allowed to transfer from an electrical conductor to a part of the formation.

PRIORITY CLAIM

This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No.10/693,820 entitled “HIGH VOLTAGE TEMPERATURE LIMITED HEATERS” filedOct. 24, 2003, which claims priority to Provisional Patent ApplicationNo. 60/420,835 entitled “IN SITU THERMAL PROCESSING OF A HYDROCARBONCONTAINING FORMATION” filed on Oct. 24, 2002, and to Provisional PatentApplication No. 60/465,279 entitled “ICP IMPROVEMENTS” filed on Apr. 24,2003, which are incorporated herein by reference.

RELATED PATENTS

This patent application incorporates by reference in its entirety U.S.patent application Ser. No. 10/279,289 entitled “FORMING OPENINGS IN AHYDROCARBON CONTAINING FORMATION USING MAGNETIC TRACKING” filed on Oct.24, 2002, which are incorporated herein by reference

BACKGROUND

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention relates generally to methods and systems forproduction of hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and/or other products from varioussubsurface formations such as hydrocarbon containing formation.

2. Description of Related Art

Hydrocarbons obtained from subterranean (e.g., sedimentary) formationsare often used as energy resources, as feedstocks, and as consumerproducts. Concerns over depletion of available hydrocarbon resources andconcerns over declining overall quality of produced hydrocarbons haveled to development of processes for more efficient recovery, processingand/or use of available hydrocarbon resources. In situ processes may beused to remove hydrocarbon materials from subterranean formations.Chemical and/or physical properties of hydrocarbon material within asubterranean formation may need to be changed to allow hydrocarbonmaterial to be more easily removed from the subterranean formation. Thechemical and physical changes may include in situ reactions that produceremovable fluids, composition changes, solubility changes, densitychanges, phase changes, and/or viscosity changes of the hydrocarbonmaterial within the formation. A fluid may be, but is not limited to, agas, a liquid, an emulsion, a slurry, and/or a stream of solid particlesthat has flow characteristics similar to liquid flow.

A wellbore may be formed in a formation. In some embodiments, loggingwhile drilling (LWD), seismic while drilling (SWD), and/or measurementwhile drilling (MWD) techniques may be used to determine a location of awellbore while the wellbore is being drilled. Examples of thesetechniques are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,899,958 to Dowell et al.;6,078,868 to Dubinsky; 6,084,826 to Leggett, III; 6,088,294 to Leggett,III et al.; and 6,427,124 to Dubinsky et al., each of which isincorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein.

In some embodiments, a casing or other pipe system may be placed orformed in a wellbore. U.S. Pat. No. 4,572,299 issued to Van Egmond etal., which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein,describes spooling an electric heater into a well. In some embodiments,components of a piping system may be welded together. Quality of formedwells may be monitored by various techniques. In some embodiments,quality of welds may be inspected by a hybrid electromagnetic acoustictransmission technique which is known as EMAT. EMAT is described in U.S.Pat. Nos. 5,652,389 to Schaps et al.; 5,760,307 to Latimer et al.;5,777,229 to Geier et al.; and 6,155,117 to Stevens et al., each ofwhich is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein.

In some embodiments, an expandable tubular may be used in a wellbore.Expandable tubulars are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,366,012 toLohbeck, and 6,354,373 to Vercaemer et al., each of which isincorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein.

Heaters may be placed in wellbores to heat a formation during an in situprocess. Examples of in situ processes utilizing downhole heaters areillustrated in U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,634,961 to Ljungstrom; 2,732,195 toLjungstrom; 2,780,450 to Ljungstrom; 2,789,805 to Ljungstrom; 2,923,535to Ljungstrom; and 4,886,118 to Van Meurs et al.; each of which isincorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein.

Application of heat to oil shale formations is described in U.S. Pat.Nos. 2,923,535 to Ljungstrom and 4,886,118 to Van Meurs et al. Heat maybe applied to the oil shale formation to pyrolyze kerogen within the oilshale formation. The heat may also fracture the formation to increasepermeability of the formation. The increased permeability may allowformation fluid to travel to a production well where the fluid isremoved from the oil shale formation. In some processes disclosed byLjungstrom, for example, an oxygen containing gaseous medium isintroduced to a permeable stratum, preferably while still hot from apreheating step, to initiate combustion.

A heat source may be used to heat a subterranean formation. Electricheaters may be used to heat the subterranean formation by radiationand/or conduction. An electric heater may resistively heat an element.U.S. Pat. No. 2,548,360 to Germain, which is incorporated by referenceas if fully set forth herein, describes an electric heating elementplaced within a viscous oil within a wellbore. The heater element heatsand thins the oil to allow the oil to be pumped from the wellbore. U.S.Pat. No. 4,716,960 to Eastlund et al., which is incorporated byreference as if fully set forth herein, describes electrically heatingtubing of a petroleum well by passing a relatively low voltage currentthrough the tubing to prevent formation of solids. U.S. Pat. No.5,065,818 to Van Egmond, which is incorporated by reference as if fullyset forth herein, describes an electric heating element that is cementedinto a well borehole without a casing surrounding the heating element.

U.S. Pat. No. 6,023,554 to Vinegar et al., which is incorporated byreference as if fully set forth herein, describes an electric heatingelement that is positioned within a casing. The heating elementgenerates radiant energy that heats the casing. A granular solid fillmaterial may be placed between the casing and the formation. The casingmay conductively heat the fill material, which in turn conductivelyheats the formation.

U.S. Pat. No. 4,570,715 to Van Meurs et al., which is incorporated byreference as if fully set forth herein, describes an electric heatingelement. The heating element has an electrically conductive core, asurrounding layer of insulating material, and a surrounding metallicsheath. The conductive core may have a relatively low resistance at hightemperatures. The insulating material may have electrical resistance,compressive strength, and heat conductivity properties that arerelatively high at high temperatures. The insulating layer may inhibitarcing from the core to the metallic sheath. The metallic sheath mayhave tensile strength and creep resistance properties that arerelatively high at high temperatures.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,060,287 to Van Egmond, which is incorporated byreference as if fully set forth herein, describes an electrical heatingelement having a copper-nickel alloy core.

Combustion of a fuel may be used to heat a formation. Combusting a fuelto heat a formation may be more economical than using electricity toheat a formation. Several different types of heaters may use fuelcombustion as a heat source that heats a formation. The combustion maytake place in portions of the formation, in a well, and/or near thesurface. Previous combustion methods have included using a fireflood. Anoxidizer is pumped into the formation. The oxidizer and hydrocarbons inthe formation are then ignited to advance a fire front towards aproduction well. Oxidizer pumped into the formation typically flowsthrough the formation along fracture lines in the formation. Ignition ofthe oxidizer and hydrocarbons may not result in the fire front flowinguniformly through the formation.

A flameless combustor may be used to combust fuel within a well. U.S.Pat. Nos. 5,255,742 to Mikus; 5,404,952 to Vinegar et al.; 5,862,858 toWellington et al.; and 5,899,269 to Wellington et al., which areincorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describeflameless combustors. Flameless combustion may be established bypreheating a fuel and air mixture to a temperature above anauto-ignition temperature of the mixture. The fuel and air may be mixedin a heating zone to react. In the heating, a catalytic surface may beprovided in the heated zone to lower the auto-ignition temperature ofthe fuel and air mixture.

In some embodiments, a flameless distributed combustor may include amembrane or membranes that allow for separation of desired components ofexhaust gas. Examples of flameless distributed combustors that usemembranes are illustrated in U.S. Provisional Application 60/273,354filed on Mar. 5, 2001; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/091,108 filedon Mar. 5, 2002; U.S. Provisional Application 60/273,353 filed on Mar.5, 2001; and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/091,104 filed on Mar.5, 2002, each of which is incorporated by reference as if fully setforth herein.

Heat may be supplied to a formation from a surface heater. The surfaceheater may produce combustion gases that are circulated throughwellbores to heat the formation. Alternately, a surface burner may beused to heat a heat transfer fluid that is passed through a wellbore toheat the formation. Examples of fired heaters, or surface burners thatmay be used to heat a subterranean formation, are illustrated in U.S.Pat. Nos. 6,056,057 to Vinegar et al. and 6,079,499 to Mikus et al.,which are both incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein.

Downhole conditions may be monitored during an in situ process. Downholeconditions may be monitored using temperature sensors, pressure sensors,and other instrumentation. A thermowell and temperature logging process,such as that described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,616,705 issued to Stegemeieret al., which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein,may be used to monitor temperature. Sound waves may be used to measuretemperature. Examples of using sound waves to measure temperature areshown in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,624,188 to West; 5,437,506 to Gray; 5,349,859to Kleppe; 4,848,924 to Nuspl et al.; 4,762,425 to Shakkottai et al.;and 3,595,082 to Miller, Jr., which are incorporated by reference as iffully set forth herein.

Coal is often mined and used as a fuel within an electricity generatingpower plant. Most coal that is used as a fuel to generate electricity ismined. A significant number of coal formations are not suitable foreconomical mining. For example, mining coal from steeply dipping coalseams, from relatively thin coal seams (e.g., less than about 1 meterthick), and/or from deep coal seams may not be economically feasible.Deep coal seams include coal seams that are at, or extend to, depths ofgreater than about 3000 feet (about 914 m) below surface level. Theenergy conversion efficiency of burning coal to generate electricity isrelatively low, as compared to fuels such as natural gas. Also, burningcoal to generate electricity often generates significant amounts ofcarbon dioxide, oxides of sulfur, and oxides of nitrogen that may bereleased into the atmosphere.

Some hydrocarbon formation may include oxygen containing compounds.Treating a formation that includes oxygen containing compounds may allowfor the production of phenolic compounds and phenol. Separation of thephenol from a hydrocarbon mixture may be desirable. Production of phenolfrom a mixture of xylenols is described in U.S. Pat. No. 2,998,457issued to Paulsen, et al., which is incorporated by reference as iffully set forth herein.

Synthesis gas may be produced in reactors or in situ within asubterranean formation. Synthesis gas may be produced within a reactorby partially oxidizing methane with oxygen. In situ production ofsynthesis gas may be economically desirable to avoid the expense ofbuilding, operating, and maintaining a surface synthesis gas productionfacility. U.S. Pat. No. 4,250,230 to Terry, which is incorporated byreference as if fully set forth herein, describes a system for in situgasification of coal. A subterranean coal seam is burned from a firstwell towards a production well. Methane, hydrocarbons, H₂, CO, and otherfluids may be removed from the formation through the production well.The H₂ and CO may be separated from the remaining fluid. The H₂ and COmay be sent to fuel cells to generate electricity.

U.S. Pat. No. 4,057,293 to Garrett, which is incorporated by referenceas if fully set forth herein, discloses a process for producingsynthesis gas. A portion of a rubble pile is burned to heat the rubblepile to a temperature that generates liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons bypyrolysis. After pyrolysis, the rubble is further heated, and steam orsteam and air are introduced to the rubble pile to generate synthesisgas.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,554,453 to Steinfeld et al., which is incorporated byreference as if fully set forth herein, describes an ex situ coalgasifier that supplies fuel gas to a fuel cell. The fuel cell produceselectricity. A catalytic burner is used to burn exhaust gas from thefuel cell with an oxidant gas to generate heat in the gasifier.

Properties of condensed hydrocarbon fluids produced by ex situ retortingof coal are reported in Great Britain Published Patent Application No.GB 2,068,014 A, which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forthherein. The properties of the condensed hydrocarbons may serve as abaseline for comparing the properties of condensed hydrocarbon fluidobtained from in situ processes.

Synthesis gas may be used in a wide variety of processes to makechemical compounds and/or to produce electricity. Synthesis gas may beconverted to hydrocarbons using a Fischer-Tropsch process. U.S. Pat.Nos. 4,096,163 to Chang et al.; 4,594,468 to Minderhoud; 6,085,512 toAgee et al.; and 6,172,124 to Wolflick et al., which are incorporated byreference as if fully set forth herein, describe conversion processes.Synthesis gas may be used to produce methane. Examples of a catalyticmethanation process are illustrated in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,922,148 toChild; 4,130,575 to Jorn et al.; and 4,133,825 to Stroud et al., whichare incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. Synthesisgas may be used to produce methanol. Examples of processes forproduction of methanol are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,407,973 to vanDijk et al., 4,927,857 to McShea, III et al., and 4,994,093 to Wetzel etal., each of which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forthherein. Synthesis gas may be used to produce engine fuels. Examples ofprocesses for producing engine fuels are described in U.S. Pat. Nos.4,076,761 to Chang et al., 4,138,442 to Chang et al., and 4,605,680 toBeuther et al., each of which is incorporated by reference as if fullyset forth herein.

Carbon dioxide may be produced from combustion of fuel and from manychemical processes. Carbon dioxide may be used for various purposes,such as, but not limited to, a feed stream for a dry ice productionfacility, supercritical fluid in a low temperature supercritical fluidprocess, a flooding agent for coal bed demethanation, and a floodingagent for enhanced oil recovery. Although some carbon dioxide isproductively used, many tons of carbon dioxide are vented to theatmosphere. In some processes, carbon dioxide may be sequestered in aformation. U.S. Pat. No. 5,566,756 to Chaback et al., which isincorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes carbondioxide sequestration.

Retorting processes for oil shale may be generally divided into twomajor types: aboveground (surface) and underground (in situ).Aboveground retorting of oil shale typically involves mining andconstruction of metal vessels capable of withstanding high temperatures.The quality of oil produced from such retorting may be poor, therebyrequiring costly upgrading. Aboveground retorting may also adverselyaffect environmental and water resources due to mining, transporting,processing, and/or disposing of the retorted material. Many U.S. patentshave been issued relating to aboveground retorting of oil shale.Currently available aboveground retorting processes include, forexample, direct, indirect, and/or combination heating methods.

In situ retorting typically involves retorting oil shale withoutremoving the oil shale from the ground by mining. “Modified” in situprocesses typically require some mining to develop underground retortchambers. An example of a “modified” in situ process includes a methoddeveloped by Occidental Petroleum that involves mining approximately 20%of the oil shale in a formation, explosively rubblizing the remainder ofthe oil shale to fill up the mined out area, and combusting the oilshale by gravity stable combustion in which combustion is initiated fromthe top of the retort. Other examples of “modified” in situ processesinclude the “Rubble In Situ Extraction” (“RISE”) method developed by theLawrence Livermore Laboratory (“LLL”) and radio-frequency methodsdeveloped by IIT Research Institute (“IITRI”) and LLL, which involvetunneling and mining drifts to install an array of radio-frequencyantennas in an oil shale formation.

Obtaining permeability within an oil shale formation (e.g., betweeninjection and production wells) tends to be difficult because oil shaleis often substantially impermeable. Many methods have attempted to linkinjection and production wells, including: hydraulic fracturing such asmethods investigated by Dow Chemical and Laramie Energy Research Center;electrical fracturing (e.g., by methods investigated by Laramie EnergyResearch Center); acid leaching of limestone cavities (e.g., by methodsinvestigated by Dow Chemical); steam injection into permeable nahcolitezones to dissolve the nahcolite (e.g., by methods investigated by ShellOil and Equity Oil); fracturing with chemical explosives (e.g., bymethods investigated by Talley Energy Systems); fracturing with nuclearexplosives (e.g., by methods investigated by Project Bronco); andcombinations of these methods. Many of such methods, however, haverelatively high operating costs and lack sufficient injection capacity.

An example of an in situ retorting process is illustrated in U.S. Pat.No. 3,241,611 to Dougan, which is incorporated by reference as if fullyset forth herein. For example, Dougan discloses a method involving theuse of natural gas for conveying kerogen-decomposing heat to theformation. The heated natural gas may be used as a solvent for thermallydecomposed kerogen. The heated natural gas exercises a solvent-strippingaction with respect to the oil shale by penetrating pores that exist inthe shale. The natural gas carrier fluid, accompanied by decompositionproduct vapors and gases, passes upwardly through extraction wells intoproduct recovery lines, and into and through condensers interposed insuch lines, where the decomposition vapors condense, leaving the naturalgas carrier fluid to flow through a heater and into an injection welldrilled into the deposit of oil shale.

Large deposits of heavy hydrocarbons (e.g., heavy oil and/or tar)contained within relatively permeable formations (e.g., in tar sands)are found in North America, South America, Africa, and Asia. Tar can besurface-mined and upgraded to lighter hydrocarbons such as crude oil,naphtha, kerosene, and/or gas oil. Surface milling processes may furtherseparate the bitumen from sand. The separated bitumen may be convertedto light hydrocarbons using conventional refinery methods. Mining andupgrading tar sand is usually substantially more expensive thanproducing lighter hydrocarbons from conventional oil reservoirs.

U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,340,467 to Gregoli et al. and 5,316,467 to Gregoli etal., which are incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein,describe adding water and a chemical additive to tar sand to form aslurry. The slurry may be separated into hydrocarbons and water.

U.S. Pat. No. 4,409,090 to Hanson et al., which is incorporated byreference as if fully set forth herein, describes physically separatingtar sand into a bitumen-rich concentrate that may have some remainingsand. The bitumen-rich concentrate may be further separated from sand ina fluidized bed.

U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,985,138 to Humphreys and 5,968,349 to Duyvesteyn etal., which are incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein,describe mining tar sand and physically separating bitumen from the tarsand. Further processing of bitumen in treatment facilities may upgradeoil produced from bitumen.

In situ production of hydrocarbons from tar sand may be accomplished byheating and/or injecting a gas into the formation. U.S. Pat. Nos.5,211,230 to Ostapovich et al. and 5,339,897 to Leaute, which areincorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describe ahorizontal production well located in an oil-bearing reservoir. Avertical conduit may be used to inject an oxidant gas into the reservoirfor in situ combustion.

U.S. Pat. No. 2,780,450 to Ljungstrom describes heating bituminousgeological formations in situ to convert or crack a liquid tar-likesubstance into oils and gases.

U.S. Pat. No. 4,597,441 to Ware et al., which is incorporated byreference as if fully set forth herein, describes contacting oil, heat,and hydrogen simultaneously in a reservoir. Hydrogenation may enhancerecovery of oil from the reservoir.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,046,559 to Glandt and U.S. Pat. No. 5,060,726 to Glandtet al., which are incorporated by reference as if fully set forthherein, describe preheating a portion of a tar sand formation between aninjector well and a producer well. Steam may be injected from theinjector well into the formation to produce hydrocarbons at the producerwell.

Substantial reserves of heavy hydrocarbons are known to exist informations that have relatively low permeability. For example, billionsof barrels of oil reserves are known to exist in diatomaceous formationsin California. Several methods have been proposed and/or used forproducing heavy hydrocarbons from relatively low permeabilityformations.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,415,231 to Northrop et al., which is incorporated byreference as if fully set forth herein, describes a method forrecovering hydrocarbons (e.g., oil) from a low permeability subterraneanreservoir of the type comprised primarily of diatomite. A first slug orvolume of a heated fluid (e.g., 60% quality steam) is injected into thereservoir at a pressure greater than the fracturing pressure of thereservoir. The well is then shut in and the reservoir is allowed to soakfor a prescribed period (e.g., 10 days or more) to allow the oil to bedisplaced by the steam into the fractures. The well is then produceduntil the production rate drops below an economical level. A second slugof steam is then injected and the cycles are repeated.

U.S. Pat. No. 4,530,401 to Hartman et al., which is incorporated byreference as if fully set forth herein, describes a method for therecovery of viscous oil from a subterranean, viscous oil-containingformation by injecting steam into the formation.

U.S. Pat. No. 4,640,352 to Van Meurs et al., which is incorporated byreference as if fully set forth herein, describes a method forrecovering hydrocarbons (e.g., heavy hydrocarbons) from a lowpermeability subterranean reservoir of the type comprised primarily ofdiatomite.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,339,897 to Leaute describes a method and apparatus forrecovering and/or upgrading hydrocarbons utilizing in situ combustionand horizontal wells.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,431,224 to Laali, which is incorporated by reference asif fully set forth herein, describes a method for improving hydrocarbonflow from low permeability tight reservoir rock.

U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,297,626 Vinegar et al. and 5,392,854 to Vinegar et al.,which are incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein,describe processes wherein oil containing subterranean formations areheated. The following patents are incorporated herein by reference: U.S.Pat. Nos. 6,152,987 to Ma et al.; 5,525,322 to Willms; 5,861,137 toEdlund; and 5,229,102 to Minet et al.

As outlined above, there has been a significant amount of effort todevelop methods and systems to economically produce hydrocarbons,hydrogen, and/or other products from hydrocarbon containing formations.At present, however, there are still many hydrocarbon containingformations from which hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and/or other productscannot be economically produced. Thus, there is still a need forimproved methods and systems for production of hydrocarbons, hydrogen,and/or other products from various hydrocarbon containing formations.

U.S. Pat. No. RE36,569 to Kuckes, which is incorporated by reference asif fully set forth herein, describes a method for determining distancefrom a borehole to a nearby, substantially parallel target well for usein guiding the drilling of the borehole. The method includes positioninga magnetic field sensor in the borehole at a known depth and providing amagnetic field source in the target well.

U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,515,931 to Kuckes and 5,657,826 to Kuckes, which areincorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describe singleguide wire systems for use in directional drilling of boreholes. Thesystems include a guide wire extending generally parallel to the desiredpath of the borehole.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,725,059 to Kuckes et al., which is incorporated byreference as if fully set forth herein, describes a method and apparatusfor steering boreholes for use in creating a subsurface barrier layer.The method includes drilling a first reference borehole, retracting thedrill stem while injecting a sealing material into the earth around theborehole, and simultaneously pulling a guide wire into the borehole. Theguide wire is used to produce a corresponding magnetic field in theearth around the reference borehole. The vector components of themagnetic field are used to determine the distance and direction from theborehole being drilled to the reference borehole in order to steer theborehole being drilled. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,512,830 to Kuckes; 5,676,212 toKuckes; 5,541,517 to Hartmann et al.; 5,589,775 to Kuckes; 5,787,997 toHartmann; and 5,923,170 to Kuckes, each of which is incorporated byreference as if fully set forth herein, describe methods for measurementof the distance and direction between boreholes using magnetic orelectromagnetic fields.

During some in situ process embodiments, cement may be used. In someembodiments, sulfur cement may be utilized. U.S. Pat. No. 4,518,548 toYarbrough and U.S. Pat. No. 4,428,700 to Lennemann, which are bothincorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describe sulfurcements. Above about 160° C., molten sulfur changes from a form witheight sulfurs in a ring to an open chain form. When the rings open andif hydrogen sulfide is present, the hydrogen sulfide may terminate thechains, and the viscosity will not increase significantly, but theviscosity will increase. If hydrogen sulfide has been stripped from themolten sulfur, then the short chains may join and form very longmolecules. The viscosity may increase dramatically. Molten sulfur may bekept in a range from about 110° C. to about 130° C. to keep the sulfurin the eight chain ring form.

SUMMARY

In some heat source embodiments and freeze well embodiments, wells inthe formation may have two entries into the formation at the surface. Insome embodiments, wells with two entries into the formation are formedusing river crossing rigs to drill the wells.

In an embodiment, a method of treating a hydrocarbon containingformation in situ may include providing heat from one or more heaters toat least a portion of the formation. The heat may be allowed to transferfrom one or more of the heaters to a section of the formation. Hydrogenmay be provided to the section. A mixture may be produced from theformation. In some embodiments, a flow rate of the hydrogen may becontrolled as a function of the amount of hydrogen in the mixtureproduced from the formation.

In an embodiment, a method of treating a hydrocarbon containingformation may include providing heat from one or more heaters to atleast a portion of the formation. Hydrogen may be provided to a sectionof the formation. Heat may be allowed to transfer from one or more ofthe heaters to the section of the formation. Production of hydrogen maybe controlled from production wells in the formation. In someembodiments, production of hydrogen from one or more production wellsmay be controlled by selectively and preferentially producing themixture from the formation as a liquid.

In an embodiment, a method of treating a hydrocarbon containingformation in situ may include providing heat from one or more heaters toa portion of the formation. Heat may be allowed to transfer from one ormore of the heaters to a section of the formation. A mixture includinghydrogen and a carrier fluid may be provided to the section. In someembodiments, production of hydrogen from the formation may becontrolled. In certain embodiments, formation fluid may be produced fromthe formation.

In an embodiment, a method of treating a hydrocarbon containingformation in situ may include providing a barrier to at least a portionof the formation to inhibit migration of fluids from a treatment area ofthe formation. Heat may be allowed to transfer from one or more of theheaters to a section of the formation. In some embodiments, productionof hydrogen from the formation may be controlled. In certainembodiments, a mixture may be produced from the formation.

In an embodiment, a method of treating a hydrocarbon containingformation in situ may include providing a refrigerant to barrier wellsplaced in a portion of the formation. A frozen barrier zone may beestablished to inhibit migration of fluids from a treatment area.Hydrogen may be provided to the treatment area. Heat may be providedfrom one or more heaters to the treatment area. Heat may be allowed totransfer from one or more of the heaters to a section of the formation.In some embodiments, production of hydrogen from the section may becontrolled. In certain embodiments, a mixture may be produced from theformation.

In an embodiment, a method for producing phenolic compounds from ahydrocarbon containing formation that includes an oxygen containinghydrocarbon resource may include providing heat from one or more heatersto at least a portion of the formation. The heat may be allowed totransfer from one or more of the heaters to a section of the formation.Formation fluid may be produced from the formation. In some embodiments,at least one condition in at least a portion of the formation may becontrolled to selectively produce phenolic compounds in the formationfluid. In certain embodiments, controlling at least one conditionincludes controlling hydrogen production from the formation.

In an embodiment, a method for forming at least one opening in ageological formation may include forming a portion of an opening in theformation. An acoustic wave may be provided to at least a portion of theformation. The acoustic wave may propagate between at least onegeological discontinuity of the formation and at least a portion of theopening. At least one reflection of the acoustic wave may be sensed inat least a portion of the opening. The sensed reflection may be used toassess an approximate location of at least a portion of the opening ofthe formation. In some embodiments, an additional portion of the openingmay be formed based on the assessed approximate location of at least aportion of the opening.

In an embodiment, a method for heating a hydrocarbon formation mayinclude providing heat to the formation from one or more heaters in oneor more openings in the formation. At least a portion of one of theopenings may be formed in the formation. An acoustic wave may beprovided to at least a portion of the formation. The acoustic wave maypropagate between at least one geological discontinuity of the formationand at least a portion of the opening. At least one reflection of theacoustic wave may be sensed in at least a portion of the opening. Insome embodiments, the sensed reflection may be used to assess anapproximate location of at least a portion of the opening in theformation.

In an embodiment, a method for forming a wellbore in a hydrocarboncontaining formation may include forming a first opening of the wellborebeginning at the earth's surface and ending underground. A secondopening of the wellbore may be formed beginning at the earth's surfaceand ending underground proximate the first opening. The openings may becoupled underground using an expandable conduit.

In an embodiment, a method for treating a hydrocarbon containingformation may include providing heat from one or more heaters to atleast a portion of the formation. At least one heater may be located inat least one wellbore in the formation. At least one wellbore may besized, at least in part, based on a determination of formation expansioncaused by heating of the formation so that formation expansion caused byheating of the formation is not sufficient to cause substantialdeformation of one or more heaters in the sized wellbores. The ratio ofthe outside diameter of a heater to the inside diameter of a wellboremay be less than about 0.75. In certain embodiments, heat may be allowedto transfer from the one or more heaters to a part of the formation. Insome embodiments, a mixture may be produced from the formation.

In an embodiment, a method for treating a hydrocarbon containingformation may include providing heat from one or more heaters to atleast a portion of the formation. At least one of the heaters may bepositioned in at least one wellbore in the formation. In someembodiments, heating from one or more of the heaters may be controlledto inhibit substantial deformation of one or more of the heaters causedby thermal formation expansion against one or more of the heaters. Heatmay be allowed to transfer from one or more of the heaters to a part ofthe formation. In some embodiments, a mixture may be produced from theformation.

In an embodiment, a system for heating at least a part of a hydrocarboncontaining formation may include an elongated heater. The elongatedheater may be located in an opening in the formation. At least a portionof the formation may have a richness of at least about 30 gallons ofhydrocarbons per ton of formation, as measured by Fischer Assay. Theheater may provide heat to at least a part of the formation during usesuch that at least a part of the formation is heated to at least about250° C. In some embodiments, an initial diameter of the opening may beat least 1.5 times the largest transverse cross-sectional dimension ofthe heater in the opening and proximate the portion of the formationbeing heated. The heater may be designed to inhibit deformation of theheater due to expansion of the formation caused by heating of theformation.

In an embodiment, a method for treating a hydrocarbon containingformation may include heating a first volume of the formation using afirst set of heaters. A second volume of the formation may be heatedusing a second set of heaters. The first volume may be spaced apart fromthe second volume by a third volume of the formation. The first volume,second volume, and/or third volume may be sized, shaped, and/or locatedto inhibit deformation of subsurface equipment caused by geomechanicalmotion of the formation during heating.

In an embodiment, a method for treating a hydrocarbon containingformation may include heating a first volume of the formation using afirst set of heaters. A second volume of the formation may be heatedusing a second set of heaters. In some embodiments, the first volume ofthe formation may be spaced apart from the second volume by a thirdvolume of the formation. The third volume of the formation may be heatedusing a third set of heaters. In certain embodiments, the third set ofheaters may begin heating at a selected time after the first set ofheaters and the second set of heaters. Heat from the first, second, andthird volumes of the formation may be allowed to transfer to at least apart of the formation. A mixture may be produced from the formation.

In an embodiment, a system for heating at least a part of a subsurfaceformation may include an AC power supply and one or more electricalconductors. The one or more electrical conductors may be electricallycoupled to the AC power supply and placed in the opening in theformation. In some embodiments, at least one of the electricalconductors may include a heater section. The heater section may includean electrically resistive ferromagnetic material. The electricallyresistive ferromagnetic material may provide an electrically resistiveheat output when alternating current is applied to the ferromagneticmaterial. Due to decreasing AC resistance of the heater section when theferromagnetic material is near or above the selected temperature, theheater section may provide a reduced amount of heat near or above theselected temperature during use. In certain embodiments, the system mayallow heat to transfer from the heater section to a part of theformation.

In an embodiment, a method for heating a subsurface formation mayinclude applying an alternating current to one or more electricalconductors located in the subsurface formation to provide anelectrically resistive heat output. At least one of the electricalconductors may include an electrically resistive ferromagnetic materialthat provides heat when alternating current flows through theelectrically resistive ferromagnetic material. In some embodiments, theone or more electrical conductors that include an electrically resistiveferromagnetic material may provide a reduced amount of heat above ornear a selected temperature. In certain embodiments, heat may be allowedto transfer from the electrically resistive ferromagnetic material to apart of the subsurface formation.

In an embodiment, a method for heating a subsurface formation mayinclude applying an alternating electrical current to one or moreelectrical conductors placed in an opening in the formation. At leastone of the electrical conductors may include one or more electricallyresistive sections. An electrically resistive heat output may beprovided from at least one of the electrically resistive sections. Insome embodiments, at least one of the electrically resistive sectionsmay provide a reduced amount of heat above or near a selectedtemperature. The reduced amount of heat may be about 20% or less of theheat output at about 50° C. below the selected temperature. In certainembodiments, heat may be allowed to transfer from at least one of theelectrically resistive sections to at least a part of the formation.

In an embodiment, a method for heating a subsurface formation mayinclude applying alternating current to one or more electricalconductors placed in an opening in the formation. At least one of theelectrical conductors may include an electrically resistiveferromagnetic material that provides an electrically resistive heatoutput when alternating current is applied to the ferromagneticmaterial. In some embodiments, alternating current may be applied to theferromagnetic material when the ferromagnetic material is about 50° C.below a Curie temperature of the ferromagnetic material to provide aninitial electrically resistive heat output. In certain embodiments, thetemperature of the ferromagnetic material may be allowed to approach orrise above the Curie temperature of the ferromagnetic material. Heatoutput from at least one of the electrical conductors may be allowed todecline below the initial electrically resistive heat output as a resultof a change in AC resistance of the electrical conductors caused by thetemperature of the ferromagnetic material approaching or rising abovethe Curie temperature of the ferromagnetic material.

In an embodiment, a heater system may include an AC supply to providealternating current above about 200 volts (or above about 650 volts orabove about 1000 volts) and an electrical conductor comprising one ormore ferromagnetic sections. The electrical conductor may beelectrically coupled to the AC supply. At least one of the ferromagneticsections may provide an electrically resistive heat output duringapplication of alternating current to the electrical conductor such thatheat can transfer to material adjacent to one or more of theferromagnetic sections. In some embodiments, one or more of theferromagnetic sections may provide a reduced amount of heat above ornear a selected temperature during use. In certain embodiments, theselected temperature is at or about the Curie temperature of theferromagnetic section.

In an embodiment, a heater system may include an AC supply to providealternating current at a voltage above about 200 volts (or above about650 volts or above about 1000 volts) and an electrical conductor coupledto the AC supply. The electrical conductor may include one or moreelectrically resistive sections. At least one of the electricallyresistive sections may include an electrically resistive ferromagneticmaterial. The electrical conductor may provide an electrically resistiveheat output during application of the alternating current to theelectrical conductor. In some embodiments, the electrical conductor mayprovide a reduced amount of heat above or near a selected temperature.The reduced amount of heat may be about 20% or less of the heat outputat about 50° C. below the selected temperature during use. In certainembodiments, the selected temperature is at or about the Curietemperature of the ferromagnetic material.

In an embodiment, a heater system may include an AC supply. Anelectrical conductor may be electrically coupled to the AC supply. TheAC supply may provide alternating current at a frequency between about100 Hz and about 1000 Hz. The electrical conductor may include at leastone electrically resistive section. The electrically resistive sectionmay provide an electrically resistive heat output during application ofthe alternating current to the electrically resistive section duringuse. In some embodiments, the electrical conductor may include anelectrically resistive ferromagnetic material. The electrical conductormay provide a reduced amount of heat above or near a selectedtemperature. In certain embodiments, the selected temperature may bewithin about 50° C. of the Curie temperature of the ferromagneticmaterial.

In an embodiment, a method of heating may include providing alternatingcurrent at a frequency between about 100 Hz and about 1000 Hz to anelectrical conductor to provide an electrically resistive heat output.The electrical conductor may include one or more electrically resistivesections. At least one of the electrically resistive sections mayinclude an electrically resistive ferromagnetic material. In someembodiments, at least one of the electrically resistive sections mayprovide a reduced amount of heat above or near a selected temperature.In certain embodiments, the selected temperature may be within about 50°C. of the Curie temperature of the ferromagnetic material.

In an embodiment, a heater system may include an AC supply to providealternating current at a frequency between about 100 Hz and about 1000Hz and an electrical conductor electrically coupled to the AC supply.The electrical conductor may include at least one electrically resistivesection to provide an electrically resistive heat output duringapplication of the AC from the AC supply to the electrically resistivesection during use. In some embodiments, the electrical conductor mayinclude an electrically resistive ferromagnetic material. The electricalconductor may provide a reduced amount of heat above or near a selectedtemperature. The reduced amount of heat may be about 20% or less of theheat output at about 50° C. below the selected temperature. In certainembodiments, the selected temperature is at or about the Curietemperature of the ferromagnetic material.

In an embodiment, a heater may include an electrical conductor togenerate an electrically resistive heat output during application ofalternating current to the electrical conductor. The electricalconductor may include an electrically resistive ferromagnetic materialat least partially surrounding a non-ferromagnetic material such thatthe heater provides a reduced amount of heat above or near a selectedtemperature. In some embodiments, the heater may include an electricalinsulator at least partially surrounding the electrical conductor. Incertain embodiments, the heater may include a sheath at least partiallysurrounding the electrical insulator.

In an embodiment, a method of heating a subsurface formation may includeproviding alternating current to an electrical conductor to provide anelectrically resistive heat output. The electrical conductor may includean electrically resistive ferromagnetic material at least partiallysurrounding a non-ferromagnetic material such that the electricalconductor provides a reduced amount of heat above or near a selectedtemperature. In some embodiments, an electrical insulator may at leastpartially surround the electrical conductor. In certain embodiments, asheath may at least partially surround the electrical insulator. Heatmay be allowed to transfer from the electrical conductor to at leastpart of the subsurface formation.

In an embodiment, a heater may include an electrical conductor togenerate an electrically resistive heat output during application ofalternating current to the electrical conductor. The electricalconductor may include an electrically resistive ferromagnetic alloy atleast partially surrounding a non-ferromagnetic material such that theheater provides a reduced amount of heat above or near a selectedtemperature. The ferromagnetic alloy may include nickel. In someembodiments, an electrical insulator may at least partially surround theelectrical conductor. In certain embodiments, a sheath may at leastpartially surround the electrical insulator.

In an embodiment, a heater may include an electrical conductor togenerate an electrically resistive heat output during application ofalternating current to the electrical conductor. The electricalconductor may include an electrically resistive ferromagnetic materialat least partially surrounding a non-ferromagnetic material such thatthe heater provides a reduced amount of heat above or near a selectedtemperature. In some embodiments, the heater may include a conduit atleast partially surrounding the electrical conductor. In certainembodiments, a centralizer may maintain a separation distance betweenthe electrical conductor and the conduit.

In an embodiment, a method of heating a subsurface formation may includeproviding alternating current to an electrical conductor to provide anelectrically resistive heat output. The electrical conductor may includean electrically resistive ferromagnetic material at least partiallysurrounding a non-ferromagnetic material such that the electricalconductor provides a reduced amount of heat above or near a selectedtemperature. In some embodiments, a conduit may at least partiallysurround the electrical conductor. In certain embodiments, a centralizermay maintain a separation distance between the electrical conductor andthe conduit. Heat may be allowed to transfer from the electricalconductor to at least part of the subsurface formation.

In an embodiment, a heater may include an electrical conductor. Theelectrical conductor may generate an electrically resistive heat outputwhen alternating electrical current is applied to the electricalconductor. The heater may include conduit at least partially surroundingthe electrical conductor. A centralizer may maintain a separationdistance between the electrical conductor and the conduit. In someembodiments, the electrical conductor may include an electricallyresistive ferromagnetic material at least partially surrounding anon-ferromagnetic material. In certain embodiments, the ferromagneticmaterial may provide a reduced amount of heat above or near a selectedtemperature. The reduced amount of heat may be about 20% or less of theheat output at about 50° C. below the selected temperature.

In an embodiment, a system for heating a part of a hydrocarboncontaining formation may include a conduit and one or more electricalconductors to be placed in an opening in the formation. The conduit mayallow fluids to be produced from the formation. At least one of theelectrical conductors may include a heater section. The heater sectionmay include an electrically resistive ferromagnetic material to providean electrically resistive heat output when alternating current isapplied to the ferromagnetic material. The ferromagnetic material mayprovide a reduced amount of heat above or near a selected temperatureduring use. In some embodiments, the reduced heat output may inhibit atemperature rise of the ferromagnetic material above a temperature thatcauses undesired degradation of hydrocarbon material adjacent to theferromagnetic material. In certain embodiments, system may allow heat totransfer from the heater section to a part of the formation such thatthe heat reduces the viscosity of fluids in the formation and/or fluidsat, near, and/or in the opening.

A temperature limited heater may have various configurations. The heatermay include a ferromagnetic member exclusively or may include layers ofelectrical conductors (both ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic) andelectrical insulators. Each conductor layer may include two or moreferromagnetic and/or non-ferromagnetic materials positioned along theheater axis. The current passing through a non-ferromagnetic portion ofa heater may produce little or no heat output. The combination ofmaterials may allow the resistance profile of the heater to be tailoredto a desired specification.

Heater materials may be selected to enhance physical properties of aheater. For example, heater materials may be selected such that innerlayers expand to a greater degree than outer layers with increasingtemperature, resulting in a tight-packed structure. An outer layer of aheater may be corrosion resistant. Structural support may be provided byselecting outer layer material with high creep strength or by selectinga thick-walled conduit. Various impermeable layers may be included toinhibit metal migration through the heater.

A desired ratio of AC (alternating current) resistance through theferromagnetic material just below the Curie temperature to AC resistancejust above the Curie temperature (i.e., turndown ratio) may be achievedwith a selection of ferromagnetic material. Alternatively, a desiredturndown ratio may be achieved by selectively applying electricalcurrent to the material and/or coupling the ferromagnetic material tonon-ferromagnetic materials. Above the Curie temperature, resistance maybe substantially independent of applied electrical current. Below theCurie temperature, resistance through the ferromagnetic material maydecrease as the current increases, resulting in a lower turndown ratio.

The overall structure of a temperature limited heater may be designed toallow the heater to be spooled for deployment by a coiled tubing rig.Alternatively, a heater may be manufactured in sections and assembledon-site. A heater may include heating and non-heating sections. In someembodiments, a heating section of a heater may be placed in a wellboreproximate a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation. A non-heatingsection of the heater may be placed in the wellbore proximate theoverburden. In certain embodiments, a heater may have a heating sectionwith a first Curie temperature in a wellbore proximate a portion of ahydrocarbon containing formation. The heater may have a heating sectionwith a second Curie temperature in the wellbore proximate theoverburden. The heating section in the overburden may inhibit certainformation fluids (e.g., water and light hydrocarbons) from refluxing inthe wellbore proximate the hydrocarbon containing portion by maintainingfluids in the vapor phase in the wellbore proximate the overburdenregion.

In some embodiments, temperature limited heaters may be used incombination with other heaters in a wellbore. For example, a combustionheater (e.g., a downhole combustor, a natural distributed combustor, ora flameless distributed combustor) may be placed in a wellbore with atemperature limited heater. The temperature limited heater may preheatthe formation, ignite combustion, and/or provide additional heat controlfor the combustion heater.

In an embodiment, a method for treating a hydrocarbon containingformation may include applying alternating current to one or moreelectrical conductors located in an opening in the formation to providean electrically resistive heat output. At least one of the electricalconductors may include an electrically resistive ferromagnetic materialthat provides heat when alternating current flows through theelectrically resistive ferromagnetic material. In some embodiments, theelectrically resistive ferromagnetic material may provide a reducedamount of heat above or near a selected temperature. In certainembodiments, the heat may be allowed to transfer from the electricallyresistive ferromagnetic material to a part of the formation so that aviscosity of fluids at or near the opening in the formation is reduced.Fluids may be produced through the opening.

In an embodiment, a method for treating a hydrocarbon containingformation may include applying an alternating electrical current to oneor more electrical conductors located in an opening in the formation toprovide an electrically resistive heat output. At least one of theelectrical conductors may include an electrically resistiveferromagnetic material that provides heat when alternating current flowsthrough the electrically resistive ferromagnetic material. Theelectrically resistive ferromagnetic material may provide a reducedamount of heat above or near a selected temperature. In someembodiments, heat may be allowed to transfer from the electricallyresistive ferromagnetic material to a part of the formation to enhanceradial flow of fluids from portions of the formation surrounding theopening to the opening. In some embodiments, fluids may be producedthrough the opening.

In an embodiment, a method for heating a hydrocarbon containingformation may include applying an alternating electrical current to oneor more electrical conductors placed in an opening in the formation. Atleast one of the electrical conductors may include one or moreelectrically resistive sections. A heat output may be provided from atleast one of the electrically resistive sections. In some embodiments,at least one of the electrically resistive sections may provide areduced amount of heat above or near a selected temperature. The reducedamount of heat may be about 20% or less of the heat output at about 50°C. below the selected temperature. In certain embodiments, heat may beallowed to transfer from at least one of the electrically resistivesections to at least a part of the formation such that a temperature inthe formation at or near the opening is maintained between about 150° C.and about 250° C. to reduce a viscosity of fluids at or near the openingin the formation. The reduced viscosity fluid may be produced throughthe opening.

In an embodiment, a system for treating a formation in situ may includefive or more oxidizers and one or more conduits. The oxidizers may beplaced in an opening in the formation. At least one of the conduits mayprovide oxidizing fluid to the oxidizers, and at least one of theconduits may provide fuel to the oxidizers. The oxidizers may allowcombustion of a mixture of the fuel and the oxidizing fluid to produceheat and exhaust gas. In some embodiments, at least a portion of exhaustgas from at least one of the oxidizers may be mixed with at least aportion of the oxidizing fluid provided to at least another one of theoxidizers.

In an embodiment, a method of treating a formation in situ may includeproviding fuel and oxidizing fluid to oxidizers positioned in an openingin the formation. At least a portion of the fuel may be mixed with atleast a portion of the oxidizing fluid to form a fuel/oxidizing fluidmixture. The fuel/oxidizing fluid mixture may be ignited in theoxidizers. The fuel/oxidizing fluid mixture may be allowed to react inthe oxidizers to produce heat and exhaust gas. At least a portion of theexhaust from one or more of the oxidizers may be mixed with theoxidizing fluid provided to another one or more of the oxidizers. Heatmay be allowed to transfer from the exhaust gas to a portion of theformation.

In an embodiment, a system for treating a formation in situ may includeone or more heater assemblies positionable in an opening in theformation. The system may include an optical sensor positionable along alength of at least one of the heater assemblies. Each heater assemblymay include five or more heaters. The optical sensor may transmit one ormore signals. The system may include one or more instruments to transmitlight to the optical sensor and receive light backwards scattered fromthe optical sensor. In some embodiments, the heaters may transfer heatto the formation to establish a pyrolysis zone in the formation.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

Advantages of the present invention may become apparent to those skilledin the art with the benefit of the following detailed description andupon reference to the accompanying drawings in which:

FIG. 1 depicts an illustration of stages of heating a hydrocarboncontaining formation.

FIG. 2 depicts a diagram that presents several properties of kerogenresources.

FIG. 3 shows a schematic view of an embodiment of a portion of an insitu conversion system for treating a hydrocarbon containing formation.

FIG. 4 depicts a plot of cumulative methane production over a period ofabout 5000 days for three different computer simulations of a coalformation.

FIG. 5 depicts a plot of methane production rates per day over a periodof about 2500 days for three different computer simulations of a coalformation.

FIG. 6 depicts a plot of cumulative water production over a period ofabout 2500 days for three different computer simulations of a coalformation.

FIG. 7 depicts a plot of water production rates per day over a period ofabout 2500 days for three different computer simulations of a coalformation.

FIG. 8 depicts a plot of cumulative carbon dioxide production over aperiod of about 2500 days for three different computer simulations of acoal formation.

FIG. 9 depicts a plot of cumulative production of methane, carbondioxide and water, as well as cumulative injection of carbon dioxideduring a computer simulated treatment of a coal formation.

FIG. 10 depicts a plot of methane, carbon dioxide and water productionrates per day, as well as carbon dioxide injection rates per day duringa computer simulated treatment of a coal formation.

FIG. 11 depicts an embodiment of a cross section of multiple stackedfreeze wells in hydrocarbon containing layers.

FIG. 12 depicts a side representation of an embodiment of an in situconversion process system.

FIG. 13 depicts an embodiment of a freeze well for a circulated liquidrefrigeration system, wherein a cutaway view of the freeze well isrepresented below ground surface.

FIG. 14 depicts condensable hydrocarbon production from Wyoming AndersonCoal pyrolysis with hydrogen injection and without hydrogen injection.

FIG. 15 depicts composition of condensable hydrocarbons produced duringpyrolysis and hydropyrolysis experiments on Wyoming Anderson Coal.

FIG. 16 depicts non-condensable hydrocarbon production from WyomingAnderson Coal based on a pyrolysis experiment and a hydropyrolysisexperiment.

FIG. 17 depicts the composition of non-condensable fluid produced duringpyrolysis and hydropyrolysis experiments on Wyoming Anderson Coal.

FIG. 18 depicts water production from Wyoming Anderson Coal based on apyrolysis experiment and a hydropyrolysis experiment.

FIG. 19 depicts an embodiment of hydrogen consumption rates in a portionof the Wyoming Anderson Coal formation for a constant rate of hydrogeninjection in the formation.

FIG. 20 depicts hydrogen consumption rates per ton of remaining coal ina portion of the Wyoming Anderson Coal formation for a variable rate ofhydrogen injection in the formation.

FIG. 21 depicts pressure at a wellhead as a function of time from anumerical simulation.

FIG. 22 depicts production rate of carbon dioxide and methane as afunction of time from a numerical simulation.

FIG. 23 depicts cumulative methane produced and net carbon dioxideinjected as a function of time from a numerical simulation.

FIG. 24 depicts pressure at wellheads as a function of time from anumerical simulation.

FIG. 25 depicts production rate of carbon dioxide as a function of timefrom a numerical simulation.

FIG. 26 depicts cumulative net carbon dioxide injected as a function oftime from a numerical simulation.

FIG. 27 depicts surface treatment units used to separatenitrogen-containing compounds from formation fluid.

FIG. 28 depicts magnetic field strength versus radial distance usinganalytical calculations.

FIGS. 29, 30, and 31 show magnetic field components as a function ofhole depth in neighboring observation wells.

FIG. 32 shows magnetic field components for a build-up section of awellbore.

FIG. 33 depicts a ratio of magnetic field components for a build-upsection of a wellbore.

FIG. 34 depicts a ratio of magnetic field components for a build-upsection of a wellbore.

FIG. 35 depicts comparisons of magnetic field components determined fromexperimental data and magnetic field components modeled using analyticalequations versus distance between wellbores.

FIG. 36 depicts the difference between the two curves in FIG. 35.

FIG. 37 depicts comparisons of magnetic field components determined fromexperimental data and magnetic field components modeled using analyticalequations versus distance between wellbores.

FIG. 38 depicts the difference between the two curves in FIG. 37.

FIG. 39 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of amagnetostatic drilling operation.

FIG. 40 depicts an embodiment of a section of a conduit with two magnetsegments.

FIG. 41 depicts a schematic of a portion of a magnetic string.

FIG. 42 depicts an embodiment of a magnetic string.

FIG. 43 depicts an embodiment of a wellbore with a first opening locatedat a first location on the Earth's surface and a second opening locatedat a second location on the Earth's surface.

FIG. 44 depicts an embodiment for using acoustic reflections todetermine a location of a wellbore in a formation.

FIG. 45 depicts an embodiment for using acoustic reflections andmagnetic tracking to determine a location of a wellbore in a formation.

FIG. 46 depicts raw data obtained from an acoustic sensor in aformation.

FIG. 47 depicts an embodiment of a heater in an open wellbore of ahydrocarbon containing formation with a rich layer.

FIG. 48 depicts an embodiment of a heater in an open wellbore of ahydrocarbon containing formation with an expanded rich layer.

FIG. 49 depicts simulations of wellbore radius change versus time forheating of an oil shale.

FIG. 50 depicts calculations of wellbore radius change versus time forheating of an oil shale in an open wellbore.

FIG. 51 depicts an embodiment of a heater in an open wellbore of ahydrocarbon containing formation with an expanded wellbore proximate arich layer.

FIG. 52 depicts an embodiment of a heater in an open wellbore with aliner placed in the opening.

FIG. 53 depicts an embodiment of a heater in an open wellbore with aliner placed in the opening and the formation expanded against theliner.

FIG. 54 depicts maximum radial stress, maximum circumferential stress,and hole size after 300 days versus richness for calculations of heatingin an open wellbore.

FIG. 55 depicts an embodiment of an aerial view of a pattern of heatersfor heating a hydrocarbon containing formation.

FIG. 56 depicts an embodiment of an aerial view of another pattern ofheaters for heating a hydrocarbon containing formation.

FIG. 57 depicts radial stress and conduit collapse strength versusremaining wellbore diameter and conduit outside diameter in an oil shaleformation.

FIG. 58 depicts radial stress and conduit collapse strength versus aratio of conduit outside diameter to initial wellbore diameter in an oilshale formation.

FIG. 59 depicts an embodiment of an apparatus for forming a compositeconductor, with a portion of the apparatus shown in cross section.

FIG. 60 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aninner conductor and an outer conductor formed by a tube-in-tube millingprocess.

FIGS. 61, 62, and 63 depict cross-sectional representations of anembodiment of a temperature limited heater with an outer conductorhaving a ferromagnetic section and a non-ferromagnetic section.

FIGS. 64, 65, 66, and 67 depict cross-sectional representations of anembodiment of a temperature limited heater with an outer conductorhaving a ferromagnetic section and a non-ferromagnetic section placedinside a sheath.

FIGS. 68, 69, and 70 depict cross-sectional representations of anembodiment of a temperature limited heater with a ferromagnetic outerconductor.

FIGS. 71, 72, and 73 depict cross-sectional representations of anembodiment of a temperature limited heater with an outer conductor.

FIGS. 74, 75, 76, and 77 depict cross-sectional representations of anembodiment of a temperature limited heater.

FIGS. 78, 79, and 80 depict cross-sectional representations of anembodiment of a temperature limited heater with an overburden sectionand a heating section.

FIGS. 81A and 81B depict cross-sectional representations of anembodiment of a temperature limited heater.

FIGS. 82A and 82B depict cross-sectional representations of anembodiment of a temperature limited heater.

FIGS. 83A and 83B depict cross-sectional representations of anembodiment of a temperature limited heater.

FIGS. 84A and 84B depict cross-sectional representations of anembodiment of a temperature limited heater.

FIGS. 85A and 85B depict cross-sectional representations of anembodiment of a temperature limited heater.

FIG. 86 depicts an embodiment of a coupled section of a compositeelectrical conductor.

FIG. 87 depicts an end view of an embodiment of a coupled section of acomposite electrical conductor.

FIG. 88 depicts an embodiment for coupling together sections of acomposite electrical conductor.

FIG. 89 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aconductor-in-conduit heat source.

FIG. 90 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aremovable conductor-in-conduit heat source.

FIG. 91A and FIG. 91B depict an embodiment of an insulated conductorheater.

FIG. 92A and FIG. 92B depict an embodiment of an insulated conductorheater.

FIG. 93 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor located inside aconduit.

FIG. 94 depicts an embodiment of a sliding connector.

FIG. 95 depicts data of leakage current measurements taken versusvoltage for alumina and silicon nitride centralizers at selectedtemperatures.

FIG. 96 depicts leakage current measurements versus temperature for twodifferent types of silicon nitride.

FIG. 97 depicts an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit temperaturelimited heater.

FIG. 98 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater with a lowtemperature ferromagnetic outer conductor.

FIG. 99 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limitedconductor-in-conduit heater.

FIG. 100 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aconductor-in-conduit temperature limited heater.

FIG. 101 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aconductor-in-conduit temperature limited heater.

FIG. 102 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aconductor-in-conduit temperature limited heater with an insulatedconductor.

FIG. 103 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aninsulated conductor-in-conduit temperature limited heater.

FIG. 104 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aninsulated conductor-in-conduit temperature limited heater.

FIG. 105 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aconductor-in-conduit temperature limited heater with an insulatedconductor.

FIGS. 106 and 107 depict cross-sectional views of an embodiment of atemperature limited heater that includes an insulated conductor.

FIGS. 108 and 109 depict cross-sectional views of an embodiment of atemperature limited heater that includes an insulated conductor.

FIG. 110 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a temperature limitedheater.

FIG. 111 depicts an embodiment of an “S” bend in a heater.

FIG. 112 depicts an embodiment of a three-phase temperature limitedheater, with a portion shown in cross section.

FIG. 113 depicts an embodiment of a three-phase temperature limitedheater, with a portion shown in cross section.

FIG. 114 depicts an embodiment of temperature limited heaters coupledtogether in a three-phase configuration.

FIG. 115 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater withcurrent return through the formation.

FIG. 116 depicts a representation of an embodiment of a three-phasetemperature limited heater with current connection through theformation.

FIG. 117 depicts an aerial view of the embodiment shown in FIG. 116.

FIG. 118 depicts a representation of an embodiment of a three-phasetemperature limited heater with a common current connection through theformation.

FIG. 119 depicts an embodiment for heating and producing from aformation with a temperature limited heater in a production wellbore.

FIG. 120 depicts an embodiment for heating and producing from aformation with a temperature limited heater and a production wellbore.

FIG. 121 depicts an embodiment of a production conduit and a heater.

FIG. 122 depicts an embodiment for treating a formation.

FIG. 123 depicts an embodiment of a heater well with selective heating.

FIG. 124 depicts electrical resistance versus temperature at variousapplied electrical currents for a 446 stainless steel rod.

FIG. 125 shows resistance profiles as a function of temperature atvarious applied electrical currents for a copper rod contained in aconduit of Sumitomo HCM12A.

FIG. 126 depicts electrical resistance versus temperature at variousapplied electrical currents for a temperature limited heater.

FIG. 127 depicts raw data for a temperature limited heater.

FIG. 128 depicts electrical resistance versus temperature at variousapplied electrical currents for a temperature limited heater.

FIG. 129 depicts power versus temperature at various applied electricalcurrents for a temperature limited heater.

FIG. 130 depicts electrical resistance versus temperature at variousapplied electrical currents for a temperature limited heater.

FIG. 131 depicts data of electrical resistance versus temperature for asolid 2.54 cm diameter, 1.8 m long 410 stainless steel rod at variousapplied electrical currents.

FIG. 132 depicts data of electrical resistance versus temperature for acomposite 1.9 cm, 1.8 m long alloy 42-6 rod with a copper core (the rodhas an outside diameter to copper diameter ratio of 2:1) at variousapplied electrical currents.

FIG. 133 depicts data of power output versus temperature for a composite1.9 cm, 1.8 m long alloy 42-6 rod with a copper core (the rod has anoutside diameter to copper diameter ratio of 2:1) at various appliedelectrical currents.

FIG. 134 depicts data for values of skin depth versus temperature for asolid 2.54 cm diameter, 1.8 m long 410 stainless steel rod at variousapplied AC electrical currents.

FIG. 135 depicts temperature versus time for a temperature limitedheater.

FIG. 136 depicts temperature versus time data for a 2.5 cm solid 410stainless steel rod and a 2.5 cm solid 304 stainless steel rod.

FIG. 137 displays temperature of the center conductor of aconductor-in-conduit heater as a function of formation depth for a Curietemperature heater with a turndown ratio of 2:1.

FIG. 138 displays heater heat flux through a formation for a turndownratio of 2:1 along with the oil shale richness profile.

FIG. 139 displays heater temperature as a function of formation depthfor a turndown ratio of 3:1.

FIG. 140 displays heater heat flux through a formation for a turndownratio of 3:1 along with the oil shale richness profile.

FIG. 141 displays heater temperature as a function of formation depthfor a turndown ratio of 4:1.

FIG. 142 depicts heater temperature versus depth for heaters used in asimulation for heating oil shale.

FIG. 143 depicts heater heat flux versus time for heaters used in asimulation for heating oil shale.

FIG. 144 depicts accumulated heat input versus time in a simulation forheating oil shale.

FIG. 145 shows DC (direct current) resistivity versus temperature for a1% carbon steel temperature limited heater.

FIG. 146 shows magnetic permeability versus temperature for a 1% carbonsteel temperature limited heater.

FIG. 147 shows skin depth versus temperature for a 1% carbon steeltemperature limited heater at 60 Hz.

FIG. 148 shows AC resistance versus temperature for a carbon steel pipeat 60 Hz.

FIG. 149 shows heater power versus temperature for a 1″ Schedule XXScarbon steel pipe, at 600 A (constant) and 60 Hz.

FIG. 150 depicts AC resistance versus temperature for a 1.5 cm diameteriron conductor.

FIG. 151 depicts AC resistance versus temperature for a 1.5 cm diametercomposite conductor of iron and copper.

FIG. 152 depicts AC resistance versus temperature for a 1.3 cm diametercomposite conductor of iron and copper and for a 1.5 cm diametercomposite conductor of iron and copper.

FIG. 153 depicts AC resistance versus temperature using analyticalequations.

FIG. 154 shows a plot of data of measured values of the relativemagnetic permeability versus magnetic field.

FIG. 155 shows a plot of data of measured values of the relativemagnetic permeability versus magnetic field.

FIG. 156 depicts the rod diameter required as a function of heat flux toobtain a σ of 2 for three materials.

FIG. 157 shows the μ_(r) ^(eff) v. H date and curve for three sizes ofrod.

FIG. 158 depicts a comparison of results of carrying out a procedure.

FIG. 159 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of adownhole oxidizer assembly.

FIG. 160 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of aventuri device coupled to a fuel conduit.

FIG. 161 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of aportion of an oxidizer assembly including a valve coupled to a fuelconduit.

FIG. 162 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of aportion of an oxidizer assembly including a valve coupled to a fuelconduit.

FIG. 163 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of a valve.

FIG. 164 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of amembrane system for increasing oxygen content in an oxidizing fluid.

FIG. 165 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of anoxidizer that may be used in a downhole oxidizer assembly.

FIG. 166 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of anoxidizer that may be used in a downhole oxidizer assembly.

FIG. 167 depicts an embodiment of a downhole oxidizer heater withtemperature limited heater ignition sources.

FIG. 168 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor.

FIG. 169 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor with ignitersections.

FIG. 170 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of amechanical ignition source.

FIG. 171 depicts a catalytic material proximate an oxidizer in adownhole oxidizer assembly.

FIG. 172 depicts tubing with ignition points to trigger explodingpellets.

FIG. 173 depicts an embodiment of a downhole oxidizer assembly.

FIG. 174 depicts a schematic representation of a portion of a downholeoxidizer assembly with substantially parallel fuel and oxidizerconduits.

FIG. 175 depicts a schematic representation of a portion of a downholeoxidizer assembly with substantially parallel fuel and oxidizerconduits.

FIG. 176 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of adownhole oxidizer assembly coupled to a fiber optic system.

While the invention is susceptible to various modifications andalternative forms, specific embodiments thereof are shown by way ofexample in the drawings and may herein be described in detail. Thedrawings may not be to scale. It should be understood, however, that thedrawings and detailed description thereto are not intended to limit theinvention to the particular form disclosed, but on the contrary, theintention is to cover all modifications, equivalents and alternativesfalling within the spirit and scope of the present invention as definedby the appended claims.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The following description generally relates to systems and methods fortreating a hydrocarbon containing formation (e.g., a formationcontaining coal (including lignite, sapropelic coal, etc.), oil shale,carbonaceous shale, shungites, kerogen, bitumen, oil, kerogen and oil ina low permeability matrix, heavy hydrocarbons, asphaltites, naturalmineral waxes, formations wherein kerogen is blocking production ofother hydrocarbons, etc.). Such formations may be treated to yieldrelatively high quality hydrocarbon products, hydrogen, and otherproducts.

“Hydrocarbons” are generally defined as molecules formed primarily bycarbon and hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbons may also include other elements,such as, but not limited to, halogens, metallic elements, nitrogen,oxygen, and/or sulfur. Hydrocarbons may be, but are not limited to,kerogen, bitumen, pyrobitumen, oils, natural mineral waxes, andasphaltites. Hydrocarbons may be located within or adjacent to mineralmatrices within the earth. Matrices may include, but are not limited to,sedimentary rock, sands, silicilytes, carbonates, diatomites, and otherporous media. “Hydrocarbon fluids” are fluids that include hydrocarbons.Hydrocarbon fluids may include, entrain, or be entrained innon-hydrocarbon fluids (e.g., hydrogen (“H₂”), nitrogen (“N₂”), carbonmonoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, water, and ammonia).

A “formation” includes one or more hydrocarbon containing layers, one ormore non-hydrocarbon layers, an overburden, and/or an underburden. An“overburden” and/or an “underburden” includes one or more differenttypes of impermeable materials. For example, overburden and/orunderburden may include rock, shale, mudstone, or wet/tight carbonate(i.e., an impermeable carbonate without hydrocarbons). In someembodiments of in situ conversion processes, an overburden and/or anunderburden may include a hydrocarbon containing layer or hydrocarboncontaining layers that are relatively impermeable and are not subjectedto temperatures during in situ conversion processing that results insignificant characteristic changes of the hydrocarbon containing layersof the overburden and/or underburden. For example, an underburden maycontain shale or mudstone. In some cases, the overburden and/orunderburden may be somewhat permeable.

“Kerogen” is a solid, insoluble hydrocarbon that has been converted bynatural degradation (e.g., by diagenesis) and that principally containscarbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Coal and oil shale aretypical examples of materials that contain kerogens. “Bitumen” is anon-crystalline solid or viscous hydrocarbon material that issubstantially soluble in carbon disulfide. “Oil” is a fluid containing amixture of condensable hydrocarbons.

The terms “formation fluids” and “produced fluids” refer to fluidsremoved from a hydrocarbon containing formation and may includepyrolyzation fluid, synthesis gas, mobilized hydrocarbon, and water(steam). The term “mobilized fluid” refers to fluids within theformation that are able to flow because of thermal treatment of theformation. Formation fluids may include hydrocarbon fluids as well asnon-hydrocarbon fluids.

“Carbon number” refers to a number of carbon atoms within a molecule. Ahydrocarbon fluid may include various hydrocarbons having varyingnumbers of carbon atoms. The hydrocarbon fluid may be described by acarbon number distribution. Carbon numbers and/or carbon numberdistributions may be determined by true boiling point distributionand/or gas-liquid chromatography.

A “heat source” is any system for providing heat to at least a portionof a formation substantially by conductive and/or radiative heattransfer. For example, a heat source may include electric heaters suchas an insulated conductor, an elongated member, and/or a conductordisposed within a conduit, as described in embodiments herein. A heatsource may also include heat sources that generate heat by burning afuel external to or within a formation, such as surface burners,downhole gas burners, flameless distributed combustors, and naturaldistributed combustors, as described in embodiments herein. In someembodiments, heat provided to or generated in one or more heat sourcesmay be supplied by other sources of energy. The other sources of energymay directly heat a formation, or the energy may be applied to atransfer media that directly or indirectly heats the formation. It is tobe understood that one or more heat sources that are applying heat to aformation may use different sources of energy. Thus, for example, for agiven formation some heat sources may supply heat from electricresistance heaters, some heat sources may provide heat from combustion,and some heat sources may provide heat from one or more other energysources (e.g., chemical reactions, solar energy, wind energy, biomass,or other sources of renewable energy). A chemical reaction may includean exothermic reaction (e.g., an oxidation reaction). A heat source mayalso include a heater that may provide heat to a zone proximate and/orsurrounding a heating location such as a heater well.

A “heater” is any system for generating heat in a well or a nearwellbore region. Heaters may be, but are not limited to, electricheaters, burners, combustors (e.g., natural distributed combustors) thatreact with material in or produced from a formation, and/or combinationsthereof. A “unit of heat sources” refers to a number of heat sourcesthat form a template that is repeated to create a pattern of heatsources within a formation.

The term “wellbore” refers to a hole in a formation made by drilling orinsertion of a conduit into the formation. A wellbore may have asubstantially circular cross section, or other cross-sectional shapes(e.g., circles, ovals, squares, rectangles, triangles, slits, or otherregular or irregular shapes). As used herein, the terms “well” and“opening,” when referring to an opening in the formation may be usedinterchangeably with the term “wellbore.”

“Natural distributed combustor” refers to a heater that uses an oxidantto oxidize at least a portion of the carbon in the formation to generateheat, and wherein the oxidation takes place in a vicinity proximate awellbore. Most of the combustion products produced in the naturaldistributed combustor are removed through the wellbore.

“Orifices” refer to openings (e.g., openings in conduits) having a widevariety of sizes and cross-sectional shapes including, but not limitedto, circles, ovals, squares, rectangles, triangles, slits, or otherregular or irregular shapes.

“Insulated conductor” refers to any elongated material that is able toconduct electricity and that is covered, in whole or in part, by anelectrically insulating material. The term “self-controls” refers tocontrolling an output of a heater without external control of any type.

“Pyrolysis” is the breaking of chemical bonds due to the application ofheat. For example, pyrolysis may include transforming a compound intoone or more other substances by heat alone. Heat may be transferred to asection of the formation to cause pyrolysis.

“Pyrolyzation fluids” or “pyrolysis products” refers to fluid producedsubstantially during pyrolysis of hydrocarbons. Fluid produced bypyrolysis reactions may mix with other fluids in a formation. Themixture would be considered pyrolyzation fluid or pyrolyzation product.As used herein, “pyrolysis zone” refers to a volume of a formation(e.g., a relatively permeable formation such as a tar sands formation)that is reacted or reacting to form a pyrolyzation fluid.

“Cracking” refers to a process involving decomposition and molecularrecombination of organic compounds to produce a greater number ofmolecules than were initially present. In cracking, a series ofreactions take place accompanied by a transfer of hydrogen atoms betweenmolecules. For example, naphtha may undergo a thermal cracking reactionto form ethene and H₂.

“Superposition of heat” refers to providing heat from two or more heatsources to a selected section of a formation such that the temperatureof the formation at least at one location between the heat sources isinfluenced by the heat sources.

“Thermal conductivity” is a property of a material that describes therate at which heat flows, in steady state, between two surfaces of thematerial for a given temperature difference between the two surfaces.

“Fluid pressure” is a pressure generated by a fluid within a formation.“Lithostatic pressure” (sometimes referred to as “lithostatic stress”)is a pressure within a formation equal to a weight per unit area of anoverlying rock mass. “Hydrostatic pressure” is a pressure within aformation exerted by a column of water.

“Condensable hydrocarbons” are hydrocarbons that condense at 25° C. atone atmosphere absolute pressure. Condensable hydrocarbons may include amixture of hydrocarbons having carbon numbers greater than 4.“Non-condensable hydrocarbons” are hydrocarbons that do not condense at25° C. and one atmosphere absolute pressure. Non-condensablehydrocarbons may include hydrocarbons having carbon numbers less than 5.

“Olefins” are molecules that include unsaturated hydrocarbons having oneor more non-aromatic carbon-to-carbon double bonds.

“Synthesis gas” is a mixture including hydrogen and carbon monoxide usedfor synthesizing a wide range of compounds. Additional components ofsynthesis gas may include water, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, methane, andother gases. Synthesis gas may be generated by a variety of processesand feedstocks.

“Reforming” is a reaction of hydrocarbons (such as methane or naphtha)with steam to produce CO and H₂ as major products. Generally, it isconducted in the presence of a catalyst, although it can be performedthermally without the presence of a catalyst.

“Sequestration” refers to storing a gas that is a by-product of aprocess rather than venting the gas to the atmosphere.

“Dipping” refers to a formation that slopes downward or inclines from aplane parallel to the Earth's surface, assuming the plane is flat (i.e.,a “horizontal” plane). A “dip” is an angle that a stratum or similarfeature makes with a horizontal plane. A “steeply dipping” hydrocarboncontaining formation refers to a hydrocarbon containing formation lyingat an angle of at least 20° from a horizontal plane. “Down dip” refersto downward along a direction parallel to a dip in a formation. “Up dip”refers to upward along a direction parallel to a dip of a formation.“Strike” refers to the course or bearing of hydrocarbon material that isnormal to the direction of dip.

“Subsidence” is a downward movement of a portion of a formation relativeto an initial elevation of the surface.

“Thickness” of a layer refers to the thickness of a cross section of alayer, wherein the cross section is normal to a face of the layer.

“Coring” is a process that generally includes drilling a hole into aformation and removing a substantially solid mass of the formation fromthe hole.

A “surface unit” is an ex situ treatment unit.

“Selected mobilized section” refers to a section of a formation that isat an average temperature within a mobilization temperature range.“Selected pyrolyzation section” refers to a section of a formation(e.g., a relatively permeable formation such as a tar sands formation)that is at an average temperature within a pyrolyzation temperaturerange.

“Enriched air” refers to air having a larger mole fraction of oxygenthan air in the atmosphere. Enrichment of air is typically done toincrease its combustion-supporting ability.

“Heavy hydrocarbons” are viscous hydrocarbon fluids. Heavy hydrocarbonsmay include highly viscous hydrocarbon fluids such as heavy oil, tar,and/or asphalt. Heavy hydrocarbons may include carbon and hydrogen, aswell as smaller concentrations of sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen.Additional elements may also be present in heavy hydrocarbons in traceamounts. Heavy hydrocarbons may be classified by API gravity. Heavyhydrocarbons generally have an API gravity below about 20°. Heavy oil,for example, generally has an API gravity of about 10-20°, whereas targenerally has an API gravity below about 10°. The viscosity of heavyhydrocarbons is generally greater than about 100 centipoise at 15° C.Heavy hydrocarbons may also include aromatics or other complex ringhydrocarbons.

Heavy hydrocarbons may be found in a relatively permeable formation. Therelatively permeable formation may include heavy hydrocarbons entrainedin, for example, sand or carbonate. “Relatively permeable” is defined,with respect to formations or portions thereof, as an averagepermeability of 10 millidarcy or more (e.g., 10 or 100 millidarcy).“Relatively low permeability” is defined, with respect to formations orportions thereof, as an average permeability of less than about 10millidarcy. One darcy is equal to about 0.99 square micrometers. Animpermeable layer generally has a permeability of less than about 0.1millidarcy.

“Tar” is a viscous hydrocarbon that generally has a viscosity greaterthan about 10,000 centipoise at 15° C. The specific gravity of targenerally is greater than 1.000. Tar may have an API gravity less than10°.

A “tar sands formation” is a formation in which hydrocarbons arepredominantly present in the form of heavy hydrocarbons and/or tarentrained in a mineral grain framework or other host lithology (e.g.,sand or carbonate).

In some cases, a portion or all of a hydrocarbon portion of a relativelypermeable formation may be predominantly heavy hydrocarbons and/or tarwith no supporting mineral grain framework and only floating (or no)mineral matter (e.g., asphalt lakes).

Certain types of formations that include heavy hydrocarbons may also be,but are not limited to, natural mineral waxes (e.g., ozocerite), ornatural asphaltites (e.g., gilsonite, albertite, impsonite, wurtzilite,grahamite, and glance pitch). “Natural mineral waxes” typically occur insubstantially tubular veins that may be several meters wide, severalkilometers long, and hundreds of meters deep. “Natural asphaltites”include solid hydrocarbons of an aromatic composition and typicallyoccur in large veins. In situ recovery of hydrocarbons from formationssuch as natural mineral waxes and natural asphaltites may includemelting to form liquid hydrocarbons and/or solution mining ofhydrocarbons from the formations.

“Upgrade” refers to increasing the quality of hydrocarbons. For example,upgrading heavy hydrocarbons may result in an increase in the APIgravity of the heavy hydrocarbons.

“Low viscosity zone” refers to a section of a formation where at least aportion of the fluids are mobilized.

“Thermal fracture” refers to fractures created in a formation caused byexpansion or contraction of a formation and/or fluids within theformation, which is in turn caused by increasing/decreasing thetemperature of the formation and/or fluids within the formation, and/orby increasing/decreasing a pressure of fluids within the formation dueto heating.

“Vertical hydraulic fracture” refers to a fracture at least partiallypropagated along a vertical plane in a formation, wherein the fractureis created through injection of fluids into a formation.

Hydrocarbons in formations may be treated in various ways to producemany different products. In certain embodiments, such formations may betreated in stages. FIG. 1 illustrates several stages of heating ahydrocarbon containing formation. FIG. 1 also depicts an example ofyield (barrels of oil equivalent per ton) (y axis) of formation fluidsfrom a hydrocarbon containing formation versus temperature (° C.) (xaxis) of the formation.

Desorption of methane and vaporization of water occurs during stage 1heating. Heating of the formation through stage 1 may be performed asquickly as possible. For example, when a hydrocarbon containingformation is initially heated, hydrocarbons in the formation may desorbadsorbed methane. The desorbed methane may be produced from theformation. If the hydrocarbon containing formation is heated further,water within the hydrocarbon containing formation may be vaporized.Water may occupy, in some hydrocarbon containing formations, betweenabout 10% to about 50% of the pore volume in the formation. In otherformations, water may occupy larger or smaller portions of the porevolume. Water typically is vaporized in a formation between about 160°C. and about 285° C. for pressures of about 6 bars absolute to 70 barsabsolute. In some embodiments, the vaporized water may producewettability changes in the formation and/or increase formation pressure.The wettability changes and/or increased pressure may affect pyrolysisreactions or other reactions in the formation. In certain embodiments,the vaporized water may be produced from the formation. In otherembodiments, the vaporized water may be used for steam extraction and/ordistillation in the formation or outside the formation. Removing thewater from and increasing the pore volume in the formation may increasethe storage space for hydrocarbons within the pore volume.

After stage 1 heating, the formation may be heated further, such that atemperature within the formation reaches (at least) an initialpyrolyzation temperature (e.g., a temperature at the lower end of thetemperature range shown as stage 2). Hydrocarbons within the formationmay be pyrolyzed throughout stage 2. A pyrolysis temperature range mayvary depending on types of hydrocarbons within the formation. Apyrolysis temperature range may include temperatures between about 250°C. and about 900° C. A pyrolysis temperature range for producing desiredproducts may extend through only a portion of the total pyrolysistemperature range. In some embodiments, a pyrolysis temperature rangefor producing desired products may include temperatures between about250° C. to about 400° C. If a temperature of hydrocarbons in a formationis slowly raised through a temperature range from about 250° C. to about400° C., production of pyrolysis products may be substantially completewhen the temperature approaches 400° C. Heating the hydrocarboncontaining formation with a plurality of heat sources may establishthermal gradients around the heat sources that slowly raise thetemperature of hydrocarbons in the formation through a pyrolysistemperature range.

In some in situ conversion embodiments, a temperature of thehydrocarbons to be subjected to pyrolysis may not be slowly increasedthroughout a temperature range from about 250° C. to about 400° C. Thehydrocarbons in the formation may be heated to a desired temperature(e.g., about 325° C.). Other temperatures may be selected as the desiredtemperature. Superposition of heat from heat sources may allow thedesired temperature to be relatively quickly and efficiently establishedin the formation. Energy input into the formation from the heat sourcesmay be adjusted to maintain the temperature in the formationsubstantially at the desired temperature. The hydrocarbons may bemaintained substantially at the desired temperature until pyrolysisdeclines such that production of desired formation fluids from theformation becomes uneconomical. Parts of a formation that are subjectedto pyrolysis may include regions brought into a pyrolysis temperaturerange by heat transfer from only one heat source.

Formation fluids including pyrolyzation fluids may be produced from theformation. The pyrolyzation fluids may include, but are not limited to,hydrocarbons, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogensulfide, ammonia, nitrogen, water, and mixtures thereof. As thetemperature of the formation increases, the amount of condensablehydrocarbons in the produced formation fluid tends to decrease. At hightemperatures, the formation may produce mostly methane and/or hydrogen.If a hydrocarbon containing formation is heated throughout an entirepyrolysis range, the formation may produce only small amounts ofhydrogen towards an upper limit of the pyrolysis range. After all of theavailable hydrogen is depleted, a minimal amount of fluid productionfrom the formation will typically occur.

After pyrolysis of hydrocarbons, a large amount of carbon and somehydrogen may still be present in the formation. A significant portion ofremaining carbon in the formation can be produced from the formation inthe form of synthesis gas. Synthesis gas generation may take placeduring stage 3 heating depicted in FIG. 1. Stage 3 may include heating ahydrocarbon containing formation to a temperature sufficient to allowsynthesis gas generation. For example, synthesis gas may be producedwithin a temperature range from about 400° C. to about 1200° C. Thetemperature of the formation when the synthesis gas generating fluid isintroduced to the formation may determine the composition of synthesisgas produced within the formation. If a synthesis gas generating fluidis introduced into a formation at a temperature sufficient to allowsynthesis gas generation, synthesis gas may be generated within theformation. The generated synthesis gas may be removed from the formationthrough a production well or production wells. A large volume ofsynthesis gas may be produced during generation of synthesis gas.

Total energy content of fluids produced from a hydrocarbon containingformation may stay relatively constant throughout pyrolysis andsynthesis gas generation. During pyrolysis at relatively low formationtemperatures, a significant portion of the produced fluid may becondensable hydrocarbons that have a high energy content. At higherpyrolysis temperatures, however, less of the formation fluid may includecondensable hydrocarbons. More non-condensable formation fluids may beproduced from the formation. Energy content per unit volume of theproduced fluid may decline slightly during generation of predominantlynon-condensable formation fluids. During synthesis gas generation,energy content per unit volume of produced synthesis gas declinessignificantly compared to energy content of pyrolyzation fluid. Thevolume of the produced synthesis gas, however, will in many instancesincrease substantially, thereby compensating for the decreased energycontent.

FIG. 2 depicts a van Krevelen diagram. The van Krevelen diagram is aplot of atomic hydrogen to carbon ratio (y axis) versus atomic oxygen tocarbon ratio (x axis) for various types of kerogen. The van Krevelendiagram shows the maturation sequence for various types of kerogen thattypically occurs over geologic time due to temperature, pressure, andbiochemical degradation. The maturation sequence may be accelerated byheating in situ at a controlled rate and/or a controlled pressure.

A van Krevelen diagram may be useful for selecting a resource forpracticing various embodiments. Treating a formation containing kerogenin region 500 may produce carbon dioxide, non-condensable hydrocarbons,hydrogen, and water, along with a relatively small amount of condensablehydrocarbons. Treating a formation containing kerogen in region 502 mayproduce condensable and non-condensable hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide,hydrogen, and water. Treating a formation containing kerogen in region504 will in many instances produce methane and hydrogen. A formationcontaining kerogen in region 502 may be selected for treatment becausetreating region 502 kerogen may produce large quantities of valuablehydrocarbons, and low quantities of undesirable products such as carbondioxide and water. A region 502 kerogen may produce large quantities ofvaluable hydrocarbons and low quantities of undesirable products becausethe region 502 kerogen has already undergone dehydration and/ordecarboxylation over geological time. In addition, region 502 kerogencan be further treated to make other useful products (e.g., methane,hydrogen, and/or synthesis gas) as the kerogen transforms to region 504kerogen.

If a formation containing kerogen in region 500 or region 502 isselected for in situ conversion, in situ thermal treatment mayaccelerate maturation of the kerogen along paths represented by arrowsin FIG. 2. For example, region 500 kerogen may transform to region 502kerogen and possibly then to region 504 kerogen. Region 502 kerogen maytransform to region 504 kerogen. In situ conversion may expeditematuration of kerogen and allow production of valuable products from thekerogen.

If region 500 kerogen is treated, a substantial amount of carbon dioxidemay be produced due to decarboxylation of hydrocarbons in the formation.In addition to carbon dioxide, region 500 kerogen may produce somehydrocarbons (e.g., methane). Treating region 500 kerogen may producesubstantial amounts of water due to dehydration of kerogen in theformation. Production of water from kerogen may leave hydrocarbonsremaining in the formation enriched in carbon. Oxygen content of thehydrocarbons may decrease faster than hydrogen content of thehydrocarbons during production of such water and carbon dioxide from theformation. Therefore, production of such water and carbon dioxide fromregion 500 kerogen may result in a larger decrease in the atomic oxygento carbon ratio than a decrease in the atomic hydrogen to carbon ratio(see region 500 arrows in FIG. 2 which depict more horizontal thanvertical movement).

If region 502 kerogen is treated, some of the hydrocarbons in theformation may be pyrolyzed to produce condensable and non-condensablehydrocarbons. For example, treating region 502 kerogen may result inproduction of oil from hydrocarbons, as well as some carbon dioxide andwater. In situ conversion of region 502 kerogen may producesignificantly less carbon dioxide and water than is produced during insitu conversion of region 500 kerogen. Therefore, the atomic hydrogen tocarbon ratio of the kerogen may decrease rapidly as the kerogen inregion 502 is treated. The atomic oxygen to carbon ratio of region 502kerogen may decrease much slower than the atomic hydrogen to carbonratio of region 502 kerogen.

Kerogen in region 504 may be treated to generate methane and hydrogen.For example, if such kerogen was previously treated (e.g., it waspreviously region 502 kerogen), then after pyrolysis longer hydrocarbonchains of the hydrocarbons may have cracked and been produced from theformation. Carbon and hydrogen, however, may still be present in theformation.

If kerogen in region 504 were heated to a synthesis gas generatingtemperature and a synthesis gas generating fluid (e.g., steam) wereadded to the region 504 kerogen, then at least a portion of remaininghydrocarbons in the formation may be produced from the formation in theform of synthesis gas. For region 504 kerogen, the atomic hydrogen tocarbon ratio and the atomic oxygen to carbon ratio in the hydrocarbonsmay significantly decrease as the temperature rises. Hydrocarbons in theformation may be transformed into relatively pure carbon in region 504.Heating region 504 kerogen to still higher temperatures will tend totransform such kerogen into graphite 506.

A hydrocarbon containing formation may have a number of properties thatdepend on a composition of the hydrocarbons within the formation. Suchproperties may affect the composition and amount of products that areproduced from a hydrocarbon containing formation during in situconversion. Properties of a hydrocarbon containing formation may be usedto determine if and/or how a hydrocarbon containing formation is to besubjected to in situ conversion.

Kerogen is composed of organic matter that has been transformed due to amaturation process. Hydrocarbon containing formations may includekerogen. The maturation process for kerogen may include two stages: abiochemical stage and a geochemical stage. The biochemical stagetypically involves degradation of organic material by aerobic and/oranaerobic organisms. The geochemical stage typically involves conversionof organic matter due to temperature changes and significant pressures.During maturation, oil and gas may be produced as the organic matter ofthe kerogen is transformed.

The van Krevelen diagram shown in FIG. 2 classifies various naturaldeposits of kerogen. For example, kerogen may be classified into fourdistinct groups: type I, type II, type III, and type IV, which areillustrated by the four branches of the van Krevelen diagram. The vanKrevelen diagram shows the maturation sequence for kerogen thattypically occurs over geological time due to temperature and pressure.Classification of kerogen type may depend upon precursor materials ofthe kerogen. The precursor materials transform over time into macerals.Macerals are microscopic structures that have different structures andproperties depending on the precursor materials from which they arederived. A hydrocarbon containing formation may be described as akerogen type I or type II, and may primarily contain macerals from theliptinite group. Liptinites are derived from plants, specifically thelipid rich and resinous parts. The concentration of hydrogen withinliptinite may be as high as 9% by weight. In addition, liptinite has arelatively high hydrogen to carbon ratio and a relatively low atomicoxygen to carbon ratio.

A type I kerogen may be classified as an alginite, since type I kerogendeveloped primarily from algal bodies. Type I kerogen may result fromdeposits made in lacustrine environments. Type II kerogen may developfrom organic matter that was deposited in marine environments.

Type III kerogen may generally include vitrinite macerals. Vitrinite isderived from cell walls and/or woody tissues (e.g., stems, branches,leaves, and roots of plants). Type III kerogen may be present in mosthumic coals. Type III kerogen may develop from organic matter that wasdeposited in swamps. Type IV kerogen includes the inertinite maceralgroup. The inertinite maceral group is composed of plant material suchas leaves, bark, and stems that have undergone oxidation during theearly peat stages of burial diagenesis. Inertinite maceral is chemicallysimilar to vitrinite, but has a high carbon and low hydrogen content.

The dashed lines in FIG. 2 correspond to vitrinite reflectance.Vitrinite reflectance is a measure of maturation. As kerogen undergoesmaturation, the composition of the kerogen usually changes due toexpulsion of volatile matter (e.g., carbon dioxide, methane, and oil)from the kerogen. Rank classifications of kerogen indicate the level towhich kerogen has matured. For example, as kerogen undergoes maturation,the rank of kerogen increases. As rank increases, the volatile matterwithin, and producible from, the kerogen tends to decrease. In addition,the moisture content of kerogen generally decreases as the rankincreases. At higher ranks, the moisture content may reach a relativelyconstant value.

Each hydrocarbon containing layer of a formation may have a potentialformation fluid yield or richness. The richness of a hydrocarbon layermay vary in a hydrocarbon layer and between different hydrocarbon layersin a formation. Richness may depend on many factors including theconditions under which the hydrocarbon containing layer was formed, anamount of hydrocarbons in the layer, and/or a composition ofhydrocarbons in the layer. Richness of a hydrocarbon layer may beestimated in various ways. For example, richness may be measured by aFischer Assay. The Fischer Assay is a standard method which involvesheating a sample of a hydrocarbon containing layer to approximately 500°C. in one hour, collecting products produced from the heated sample, andquantifying the amount of products produced. A sample of a hydrocarboncontaining layer may be obtained from a hydrocarbon containing formationby a method such as coring or any other sample retrieval method.

An in situ conversion process may be used to treat formations withhydrocarbon layers that have thicknesses greater than about 10 m. Thickformations may allow for placement of heat sources so that superpositionof heat from the heat sources efficiently heats the formation to adesired temperature. Formations having hydrocarbon layers that are lessthan 10 m thick may also be treated using an in situ conversion process.In some in situ conversion embodiments of thin hydrocarbon layerformations, heat sources may be inserted in or adjacent to thehydrocarbon layer along a length of the hydrocarbon layer (e.g., withhorizontal or directional drilling). Heat losses to layers above andbelow the thin hydrocarbon layer or thin hydrocarbon layers may beoffset by an amount and/or quality of fluid produced from the formation.

FIG. 3 shows a schematic view of an embodiment of a portion of an insitu conversion system for treating a hydrocarbon containing formation.Heat sources 508 may be placed within at least a portion of thehydrocarbon containing formation. Heat sources 508 may include, forexample, electric heaters such as insulated conductors,conductor-in-conduit heaters, surface burners, flameless distributedcombustors, and/or natural distributed combustors. Heat sources 508 mayalso include other types of heaters. Heat sources 508 may provide heatto at least a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation. Energy maybe supplied to the heat sources 508 through supply lines 510. Supplylines 510 may be structurally different depending on the type of heatsource or heat sources being used to heat the formation. Supply lines510 for heat sources may transmit electricity for electric heaters, maytransport fuel for combustors, or may transport heat exchange fluid thatis circulated within the formation.

Production wells 512 may be used to remove formation fluid from theformation. Formation fluid produced from production wells 512 may betransported through collection piping 514 to treatment facilities 516.Formation fluids may also be produced from heat sources 508. Forexample, fluid may be produced from heat sources 508 to control pressurewithin the formation adjacent to the heat sources. Fluid produced fromheat sources 508 may be transported through tubing or piping tocollection piping 514 or the produced fluid may be transported throughtubing or piping directly to treatment facilities 516. Treatmentfacilities 516 may include separation units, reaction units, upgradingunits, fuel cells, turbines, storage vessels, and other systems andunits for processing produced formation fluids.

An in situ conversion system for treating hydrocarbons may includebarrier wells 517. Barrier wells may be used to form a barrier around atreatment area. The barrier may inhibit fluid flow into and/or out ofthe treatment area. Barrier wells may be, but are not limited to,dewatering wells (vacuum wells), capture wells, injection wells, groutwells, or freeze wells. In some embodiments, barrier wells 517 may bedewatering wells. Dewatering wells may remove liquid water and/orinhibit liquid water from entering a portion of a hydrocarbon containingformation to be heated, or to a formation being heated. A plurality ofwater wells may surround all or a portion of a formation to be heated.In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 3, the dewatering wells are shownextending only along one side of heat sources 508, but dewatering wellstypically encircle all heat sources 508 used, or to be used, to heat theformation.

As shown in FIG. 3, in addition to heat sources 508, one or moreproduction wells 512 will typically be placed within the portion of thehydrocarbon containing formation. Formation fluids may be producedthrough production well 512. In some embodiments, production well 512may include a heat source. The heat source may heat the portions of theformation at or near the production well and allow for vapor phaseremoval of formation fluids. The need for high temperature pumping ofliquids from the production well may be reduced or eliminated. Avoidingor limiting high temperature pumping of liquids may significantlydecrease production costs. Providing heating at or through theproduction well may: (1) inhibit condensation and/or refluxing ofproduction fluid when such production fluid is moving in the productionwell proximate the overburden, (2) increase heat input into theformation, and/or (3) increase formation permeability at or proximatethe production well. In some in situ conversion process embodiments, anamount of heat supplied to production wells is significantly less thanan amount of heat applied to heat sources that heat the formation.

Different types of barriers may be used to form a perimeter barrieraround a treatment area. In some embodiments, the barrier is a frozenbarrier formed by freeze wells positioned at desired locations aroundthe treatment area. The perimeter barrier may be, but is not limited to,a frozen barrier surrounding the treatment area, dewatering wells, agrout wall formed in the formation, a sulfur cement barrier, a barrierformed by a gel produced in the formation, a barrier formed byprecipitation of salts in the formation, a barrier formed by apolymerization reaction in the formation, and/or sheets driven into theformation.

A frozen barrier defining a treatment area may be formed by freezewells. Vertical and/or horizontally positioned freeze wells may bepositioned around sides of a treatment area. If upward or downward waterseepage will occur, or may occur, into a treatment area, horizontallypositioned freeze wells may be used to form an upper and/or lowerbarrier for the treatment area. In some embodiments an upper barrierand/or a lower barrier may be needed to inhibit migration of fluid fromthe treatment area. In some embodiments, an upper barrier and/or a lowerbarrier may not be necessary because an upper or lower layer issubstantially impermeable (e.g., a substantially unfractured shalelayer).

Heat sources, production wells, injection wells, and/or dewatering wellsmay be installed in a treatment area prior to, simultaneously with, orafter installation of a barrier (e.g., freeze wells). In someembodiments, portions of heat sources, production wells, injectionwells, and/or dewatering wells that pass through a low temperature zonecreated by a freeze well or freeze wells may be insulated and/or heattraced so that the low temperature zone does not adversely affect thefunctioning of the heat sources, production wells, injection wellsand/or dewatering wells passing through the low temperature zone.

Upon isolation of a treatment area with a barrier, dewatering wells maybe used to remove water from the treatment area. Dewatering wells may beemployed to remove some or substantially all of the water in thetreatment area. Removing water from the treatment area may reduce thepressure in the treatment area. Removing water and/or reducing thepressure in the treatment area may assist in producing methane from thetreatment area. Removing water with dewatering wells may increase theamount and/or production rate of methane produced from the treatmentarea.

One problem that may be associated with removing water to increaseproduction of methane from a treatment area is the continuing decreasein pressure in the treatment area. Pressure in the treatment area maycontinue to drop as water is removed. Removal of all or almost all ofthe water in the treatment area may result in pressure adjacent to aproduction well or production wells in the treatment area reaching nearor sub-atmospheric pressures. Rate of production of methane maysignificantly decrease when the pressure becomes too low. Also, methaneproduced from the treatment area at low pressure may need to berecompressed for transport. Recompressing produced methane cansignificantly drive up production costs of methane. When the pressure ofthe produced methane drops below about 200 psi, compression costs mayincrease significantly.

In some embodiments, injection wells may be positioned in treatmentareas. In an embodiment, injection wells may be positioned just insideof a barrier. In some embodiments, injection wells may be positioned ina pattern throughout a treatment area. Injection wells may be used toinject carbon dioxide and/or other drive fluids into the treatment area.Carbon dioxide injection may have several beneficial effects. Injectingcarbon dioxide in the treatment area may stabilize and/or increase thepressure (e.g., bottom hole pressure) in the treatment area as waterand/or methane is removed from the treatment area. Increasing and/orstabilizing the pressure at a level above atmospheric pressure mayincrease the rate and/or pressure of the methane produced from thetreatment area. Increasing the pressure of produced methane from thetreatment area may reduce costs associated with recompressing themethane for transport.

Injecting carbon dioxide into a treatment area may have benefits inaddition to pressure control. Perimeter barriers formed around thetreatment area may develop breaks and/or fractures during production ofthe treatment area. Breaks and/or fractures may exist in the perimeterbarrier due to incomplete formation of the barrier. Fractures in thebarrier may allow water from portions of the formation surrounding thetreatment area to enter the treatment area. Water entering into thetreatment area from surrounding portions may make removal of asubstantial portion or all of the water in the treatment area difficult.The presence or influx of water may reduce production of methane fromthe treatment area. Injecting carbon dioxide into the treatment area mayincrease the pressure in the treatment area above the pressure ofsurrounding portions of the formation. Increasing pressure in thetreatment area near or above the pressure of surrounding portions of theformation may inhibit water from entering the treatment area through anyfractures in the perimeter barrier.

Injecting carbon dioxide into a treatment area may assist in displacingmethane in the treatment area. Carbon dioxide may be more readilyadsorbed on coal than is methane for a particular temperature. Injectedcarbon dioxide may adsorb onto the coal in the treatment area. Theadsorbed carbon dioxide may displace sorbed methane in the treatmentarea. Displacing sorbed methane with carbon dioxide may have the addedbenefit of sequestering carbon dioxide in the treatment area.Sequestering carbon dioxide underground in hydrocarbon containingformations may have positive environmental benefits.

Treatment areas isolated by barriers may be subjected to various in situprocessing procedures. Heater wells may be formed in the treatment area.Some or all dewatering wells and/or injections wells may be converted toheater wells. Heat sources may be positioned in the heater wells. Heatsources may be activated to begin heating the formation. Heat from theheat sources may release methane entrained in the formation. The methanemay be produced from production wells in the treatment area. The methanemay be released during initial heating of the treatment area to apyrolysis temperature range. In some embodiments, a portion of theformation may be heated to release entrained methane without the need toheat the formation to an initial pyrolysis temperature. The temperaturemay be raised until production of methane decreases below a desiredrate.

In some embodiments, formations (e.g., a coal formation) are dividedinto a several portions or treatment areas. The treatment areas may beisolated from each other by barriers. In some embodiments, treatmentareas may form a pattern (e.g., of 0.5 mile squares). In someembodiments, treatment areas may be positioned adjacent each other.Adjacent treatment areas may share a portion of a perimeter barrier.

Before, during, and/or after production of a first treatment area, asecond perimeter barrier may be formed around a second treatment area.The barriers around the first and second treatment areas may share acommon portion. After the first treatment area has been developed (e.g.,water removed, methane produced, and/or subjected to an in situ process)and a second perimeter barrier formed, water may be pumped from thesecond treatment area using dewatering wells. Water pumped from thesecond treatment area may be pumped into the first treatment area forstorage. After pumping water from the second treatment area, the secondtreatment area may be developed (e.g., water removed, methane produced,pyrolysis fluid production, and/or synthesis gas production). Storingwater pumped from one treatment area in another treatment area may beeconomically beneficial. Water stored underground in a post-treatmentarea may not have to be treated and/or purified. Storing waterunderground may have positive environmental benefits, such as reducingthe environmental impact of pumping brine water from treatment areas tothe surface.

Computer simulations were conducted to assist in demonstrating theutility of using freeze well barriers and/or carbon dioxide injectionfor increasing production of fluids from a hydrocarbon containingformation. Simulations were conducted utilizing a Comet2 NumericalSimulator. Simulations run focused on the effect of frozen barriersand/or on the effect of carbon dioxide injection on methane productionfrom coal formations. Three simulations were run. In each of thesimulations, the coal formation was dewatered, and fluids includingmethane were produced. Each of the simulations used the followingproperties: 320 acre (about 1.3 km²) pattern; coal thickness of 30 ft(about 9.1 m); coal depth of 3250 ft (about 991 m); initial pressure of1650 psi (about 114 bars); initial horizontal permeability of 10.5 md;vertical permeability of 0 md; a cleat porosity of 0.2%; stresssensitive permeability added during simulation run; and 400 barrels/day(about 63.6 m³/day) aquifer influx. In the first simulation there wereno barriers or carbon dioxide injection. In the second simulation, afrozen barrier was present to isolate the formation from adjacentformations and/or aquifers. In the third simulation, a frozen barrierwas included along with the injection of carbon dioxide into thetreatment area defined by the frozen barrier.

FIG. 4 depicts a plot of cumulative methane production for the threesimulations. FIG. 4 depicts a plot of cumulative methane production overa period of about 5000 days. First simulation curve 518 shows thatcumulative methane production from the first simulation with no barrieror carbon dioxide injection was relatively steady and never rose above 1million mcf over the 5000 day period. Second simulation curve 520 showsthat cumulative methane increased relative to the first simulation. Thesecond simulation predicted cumulative methane production of about 7million mcf after about 5000 days. Third simulation curve 522 shows thatcumulative methane production for the third simulation increased andreached an endpoint of production quicker than for the other twosimulations. The third simulation predicted cumulative methaneproduction of about 9.5 million mcf after about 3500 days.

FIG. 5 depicts a plot of methane production rates per day over a periodof about 2500 days for the three computer simulations. Curve 524 depictsmethane production rate per day for the first simulation. The methaneproduction was relatively steady throughout the observed period. Themethane production averaged about 100 mcf/day. Curve 526 depicts dailymethane production rate for the second simulation (with a frozenbarrier). The daily production rate was significantly greater that theproduction rate for the simulation without the barrier. Methaneproduction rate topped out at about 3000 mcf/day at about day 1490 forthe second simulation. Curve 528 depicts methane production rate for thethird simulation (with a frozen barrier and with carbon dioxideinjection). The methane production rate was high and showed asignificant increase in the rate of production between about day 480 andabout day 745. After the maximum production rate was achieved around day745, the rate of production decreased, but remained higher than theproduction rates of the other two simulations until about day 2200.

FIG. 6 depicts a plot of cumulative water production over a period ofabout 2500 days for the three different computer simulations. Curve 530depicts cumulative water production for the first simulation. Waterproduction continues throughout the entire simulation time frame. Curve532 depicts cumulative water production for the second simulation (witha frozen barrier). Water production from the formation substantiallystops after about 1500 days. Curve 534 depicts cumulative waterproduction for the third simulation (with a frozen barrier and withcarbon dioxide injection). Water production from the formation isslightly more than in the second simulation, but water production fromthe formation substantially stops around day 1000. The increase in waterproduction may be due in part to water displaced by the higher pressureachieved by the injection of the carbon dioxide.

FIG. 7 depicts a plot of water production rates per day over a period ofabout 2500 days for the three computer simulations. Curve 536 depictswater production per day for the first simulation with no barrier. Thedaily water production rate approaches the assumed aquifer flow rate of400 bbls/day. Curve 538 for the second simulation (with a frozenbarrier), and curve 540 for the third simulation (with a frozen barrierand with carbon dioxide injection) show that the water production ratedeclines as time progresses. The production rate of water is slightlyless after about day 700 for the third simulation. Curves 538 and 540chart water rate productions per day for the second simulation (with afrozen barrier) and the third simulation (with a frozen barrier andcarbon dioxide injection), respectively. Water production per day forthe second simulation approaches 0, but there appears to be some waterproduction from the formation throughout the 2500 day time period. Waterproduction per day for the third simulation appears to reach zero afterabout 2000 days. The injection of carbon dioxide in the formationappears to allow the water production rate to reach about zero barrelsper day.

Differences in cumulative water production between the first simulationand the second or third simulation may be due to isolation of the coalformation from surrounding aquifers using frozen barriers. The firstsimulation included no frozen barrier, so complete or substantialdewatering of the treatment area is unlikely. Without any barrier toisolate the coal formation in the first simulation, water rateproduction is limited by a number of factors. The factors include, butare not limited to, the effective pumping capacity of dewatering wellsand/or permeability of the formation.

FIG. 8 depicts a plot of cumulative carbon dioxide production over aperiod of about 2500 days for the three computer simulations. Curve 542shows cumulative carbon dioxide production for the first simulation overa period of about 2500 days. Cumulative carbon dioxide production in thefirst simulation appears to be negligible, compared to carbon dioxideproduction in the second and third simulations. Curve 544 depicts asubstantially steady increase in cumulative carbon dioxide productionfor the second simulation (with a frozen barrier). Curve 546 shows asubstantially constant increase in produced carbon dioxide for the thirdsimulation (with a frozen barrier and carbon dioxide injection) untilabout day 1750. After about day 1750, cumulative carbon dioxideproduction begins to increase significantly. The significant increase incarbon dioxide production may indicate that carbon dioxide sorbingsurfaces in the formation are, or are nearly, saturated with sorbedcarbon dioxide.

At about day 2000, cumulative carbon dioxide production sharplyincreases for the third simulation (curve 546 in FIG. 8) and cumulativemethane production begins to decrease for the third simulation (curve522 depicted in FIG. 4). The inverse relationship of production ofcarbon dioxide and methane may be due to the preferred sorption ofcarbon dioxide over methane in coal. After about day 2000, the formationmay be substantially saturated with carbon dioxide, so additional carbondioxide injection may not be needed. In an embodiment, carbon dioxideinjection may be decreased or stopped when a desired methane productionrate is attained and/or when the carbon dioxide production rate beginsto significantly increase.

FIG. 9 graphically depicts cumulative production or injectionrelationships for methane, water, and carbon dioxide for the thirdsimulation that models methane production from a coal formation using afrozen barrier and carbon dioxide injection. Curve 522 (also shown inFIG. 4) depicts cumulative methane production. Curve 534 (also shown inFIG. 6) depicts cumulative water production. Curve 546 (also shown inFIG. 8) depicts cumulative carbon dioxide production. Curve 548 depictscumulative carbon dioxide injection. A substantial amount of methaneproduction has occurred when the curve 546 becomes substantiallyparallel to curve 548 (at about day 2600).

FIG. 10 graphically depicts production rate or injection relationshipsfor methane, water, and carbon dioxide for the third simulation (with afrozen barrier and with carbon dioxide injection). Curve 528 (also shownin FIG. 5) depicts methane production rate from the formation. Curve 540(also shown in FIG. 7) depicts water production rate from the formation.Curve 550 depicts carbon dioxide production rate from the formation.Curve 552 depicts carbon dioxide injection rate into the formation. FIG.10 shows that methane production significantly increases as waterproduction begins to decline. When carbon dioxide production begins tosignificantly increase, methane production begins to significantlydecline. FIG. 10 depicts that about 16 bcf of carbon dioxide may bestored in the 320 acre coal formation.

In the first simulation (without a frozen barrier), about 0.7 bcf ofmethane were produced. In the second simulation (with a frozen barrier),about 6.9 bcf of methane were produced. In the third simulation (with afrozen barrier and with carbon dioxide injection), about 9.5 bcf ofmethane were produced. The injection of carbon dioxide within a barrierallows for quick recovery of methane from the formation. The injectionof carbon dioxide in a barrier allows for the recovery of about 40% moremethane as compared to methane recovery from a formation with a barrierwhen carbon dioxide is not introduced into the formation. Also, theinjection of carbon dioxide allows for the sequestration of asignificant amount of carbon dioxide in the formation (about 15 bcf inthe 320 acre treatment area).

In some formations, coal seams may be separated by lean layers thatcontain little or no hydrocarbons. For example, coal seams may beseparated by shale layers. Some of the coal seams may include fracturesthat allow for the passage of water through the coal seam. Typically,the lean layers are not fractured and are substantially impermeable.

In some embodiments, a lean layer above a coal seam and a lean layerbelow the coal seam may form barriers that inhibit water and fluidmigration into or out of the coal seam. In some embodiments, a sidebarrier or barriers may need to be formed to define a treatment area.The treatment area defines a volume of coal that is to be treated. Insome formations, a frozen barrier may be formed using a number of freezewells placed around a perimeter of the treatment area. The freeze wellsmay be vertically positioned in the formation. In some embodiments, thenumber of freeze wells needed to form a barrier may be reduced by usinga limited number of freeze wells that are oriented along strike,horizontally, or that otherwise generally follow the orientation of thecoal seam in which a barrier is to be formed.

For a relatively thin coal seam, only one oriented freeze well may beneeded for each side of the barrier. A relatively thin coal seam may bea coal seam that is less than about 4 m thick, less than about 7 mthick, or less than about 10 m thick. For thicker coal seams, two ormore oriented freeze wells may be needed for each side of the barrier.The stacked freeze wells may be directionally drilled so that coolingfluid that flows through the freeze wells will form overlapping lowtemperature zones. The low temperature zones may be sufficiently cold tofreeze formation water so that a frozen barrier is formed. Thick coalseams may be coal seams having a thickness of greater than about 6 m,greater than about 9 m, or greater than about 12 m. Flow rate of waterthrough the treatment area may be a factor in determining whether asingle freeze well, stacked freeze wells, or stacked freeze wells inmultiple rows are needed to form a barrier on a side of a treatmentarea. In some embodiments, more than one oriented freeze well may beneeded to accommodate a length of a treatment area side.

Multiple freeze wells in a coal seam may be stacked. FIG. 11 depicts anembodiment of a cross section of multiple stacked freeze wells in ahydrocarbon containing layer. Hydrocarbon containing formation 554 mayinclude hydrocarbon layers 556D-F, lean layers 558, overburden 560, andunderburden 562. Hydrocarbon layers 556D-F may be coal seams.Hydrocarbon layers 556D-F may be separated by relatively leanhydrocarbon containing layers 558. Lean layers 558 may contain little orno hydrocarbons. Lean layers 558 may be densely packed shale. Leanlayers 558 may be substantially impermeable. Water may be inhibited frompassing through lean layers 558. Lean layers 558 may inhibit passage offluid into or out of adjacent hydrocarbon layers.

Hydrocarbon layers 556D-F may be more permeable than lean layers 558.Hydrocarbon layers 556D-F may include cracks, and or fissures. Thepermeability of the hydrocarbon layers 556D-F may allow water to flowthrough hydrocarbon layers 556D-F. To inhibit water passage and/or fluidpassage into or out of hydrocarbon layers 556D-F, barriers may be formedin the formation. For example, hydrocarbon layers 556D-F may includemultiple stacked freeze wells 564B-D. The freeze wells may establish alow temperature zone. Water that flows into the low temperature zone mayfreeze to form a barrier. In embodiments where water may move throughcertain layers of a formation (such as hydrocarbon layers 556D-Fdepicted in FIG. 11), the formation of barriers may only be requiredaround the perimeter, or selected sides of the perimeter of a treatmentarea. Substantially impermeable lean layers 558 may act as naturalbarriers to fluid flow. In some embodiments, overburden 560 andunderburden 562 may be natural barriers to fluid flow.

Freeze wells 564B may form a first barrier. Hydrocarbon layer 556D maybe a relatively thin layer (e.g., less than about 6 m thick). Thinhydrocarbon layers, such as hydrocarbon layer 556D, may require only oneset of freeze wells 564B on each side of the treatment to form aperimeter barrier around the hydrocarbon layer.

In some embodiments, hydrocarbon layer 556D may be a relatively richlayer. When hydrocarbon layer 556D is a relatively rich layer, heaterwells 566A may be positioned adjacent hydrocarbon layer 556D in leanlayers 558. Positioning heater wells 566A adjacent to hydrocarbon layer556D may eliminate drilling through a portion of the material to betreated, and may avoid overheating and/or coking a portion of thematerial to be treated that is immediately adjacent to the heater wells.

Freeze wells 564D may form a portion of a perimeter barrier around apart of hydrocarbon layer 556F. Hydrocarbon layer 556F may be arelatively thick coal seam. To form a perimeter barrier and isolate apart of hydrocarbon layer 556F, a “stacked” formation of freeze wells564D may be used to form sides of a perimeter barrier around a part ofthe hydrocarbon layer. Stacked freeze wells 564D may isolate relativelythick hydrocarbon containing layer 556F.

In some embodiments, heater wells 566C may be positioned in hydrocarbonlayer 556F. Heater wells 566C may be used to conduct in situ processingof hydrocarbon layer 556F. In hydrocarbon layer 556F, heater wells 566Cmay be positioned in a pattern throughout hydrocarbon layer 556F. Insome embodiments, heater wells may be positioned in a staggered “W”pattern. Heater wells 566C are shown in a staggered “W” pattern inhydrocarbon layer 556F in FIG. 11.

Freeze wells 564C may form a portion of a barrier around a part ofhydrocarbon layer 556E. Hydrocarbon layer 556E is an example of arelatively thick layer of hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbon layer 556E may be arelatively thick coal seam. A stacked formation of freeze wells 564C maybe used to form a perimeter barrier around hydrocarbon layer 556E.Freeze wells 564C may be positioned in a triangular pattern to form aninterconnected and thick low temperature zone. Water entering the lowtemperature zone may freeze to form a barrier that isolates hydrocarbonlayer 556E.

In some embodiments, heater wells 566B may be positioned in hydrocarbonlayer 556E. Heater wells 566B may be used to conduct in situ processingof hydrocarbon layer 556E. In relatively thick hydrocarbon layer 556E,heater wells 566B may be positioned in a pattern throughout hydrocarbonlayer 556E. In some embodiments, heater wells may be positioned in astaggered “X” pattern. Heater wells 566B are shown in a staggered “X”pattern in hydrocarbon layer 556E in FIG. 11.

Hydrocarbon containing formations (e.g., coal formations) may containtwo or more layers of hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbon layers may be coalseams. Hydrocarbon layers may be separated by layers of materialcontaining little or no producible hydrocarbons. The separating layersmay function as natural barriers between hydrocarbon layers. Barriersmay be formed adjacent to or in one or more of the hydrocarbon layers todefine treatment areas. Barriers in different hydrocarbon layers may beformed at one time or at different times, as desired. Barriers mayisolate one hydrocarbon layer from the rest of the formation, includingother hydrocarbon layers.

In an embodiment, barriers may be formed by freeze wells to define atreatment area. Once a hydrocarbon layer is isolated with a perimeterbarrier, the hydrocarbon layer may be developed. For example, if one ofthe hydrocarbon layers is a coal seam, development may includedewatering and/or producing sorbed methane from the coal seam. In someembodiments, hydrocarbon layers may be produced sequentially from thesurface down, although hydrocarbon layers may be produced in any desiredorder. Economic factors may be taken into consideration when decidingwhich hydrocarbon layers to develop and/or in what order to develop thehydrocarbon layers. Thicker hydrocarbon layers containing morehydrocarbon products may be produced before thinner hydrocarbon layers.

FIG. 11 depicts an embodiment of hydrocarbon containing formation 554(e.g., a coal formation). Hydrocarbon containing formation 554 mayinclude multiple hydrocarbon layers 556D-F (e.g., coal seams).Hydrocarbon layers 556D-F may contain one or more barriers. Barriers mayinclude freeze wells 564B-D. Freeze wells 564B may be used to form aperimeter barrier isolating hydrocarbon layer 556D. Upon isolation ofhydrocarbon layer 556D, hydrocarbon layer 556D may be developed (i.e.,in situ conversion to produce hydrocarbons from hydrocarbon layer 556D).Freeze wells 564C may form a perimeter barrier isolating hydrocarbonlayer 556E. Hydrocarbon layer 556E may be isolated before, during,and/or after isolation of hydrocarbon layer 556D. Dewatering wells maybe used to remove water in hydrocarbon layer 556E. Water removed fromhydrocarbon layer 556E may be transferred to hydrocarbon layer 556D.Hydrocarbon layer 556E may be developed. Hydrocarbon layer 556F may thenbe developed. Water removed from hydrocarbon layer 556F may be stored inhydrocarbon layer 556E while hydrocarbon layer 556F is being developed.

Sections of freeze wells that are able to form low temperature zones maybe only a portion of the overall length of the freeze wells. Forexample, a portion of each freeze well may be insulated adjacent to anoverburden so that heat transfer between the freeze wells and theoverburden is inhibited. Insulation of a freeze well may be provided ina number of ways. In one embodiment, an insulating material such as lowthermal conductivity cement between the casing and the overburden formsan insulation layer. The cement may be substantially solid or maycontain nitrogen or other gases to form a foamed cement. A layer ofinsulation may be formed by providing, creating, or maintaining anannular space between the overburden casing and the piping containingrefrigerant. The annular space may be filled with a gas such as air ornitrogen. In certain embodiments, the pressure in the annular space maybe reduced to form a vacuum. The presence of a gas or having a vacuum inthe annular space may lower the heat transfer rate between the pipingcontaining refrigerant and the adjacent formation.

Freeze wells may form a low temperature zone along sides of ahydrocarbon containing portion of the formation. The low temperaturezone may extend above and/or below a portion of the hydrocarboncontaining layer to be treated using an in situ conversion process or anin situ process (e.g., coal bed methane production and/or solutionmining). The ability to use only portions of freeze wells to form a lowtemperature zone may allow for economic use of freeze wells when formingbarriers for treatment areas that are relatively deep within theformation (e.g., below about 450 m).

In some in situ conversion embodiments, a low temperature zone may beformed around a treatment area. During heating of the treatment area,water may be released from the treatment area as steam and/or entrainedwater in formation fluids. In general, when a treatment area isinitially heated, water present in the formation is mobilized beforesubstantial quantities of hydrocarbons are produced. The water may befree water (pore water) and/or released water that was attached or boundto clays or minerals (clay bound water). Mobilized water may flow intothe low temperature zone. The water may condense and subsequentlysolidify in the low temperature zone to form a frozen barrier.

Heat sources may not be able to break through a frozen perimeter barrierduring thermal treatment of a treatment area. In some embodiments, afrozen perimeter barrier may continue to expand for a significant timeafter heating is initiated. Thermal diffusivity of a hot, dry formationmay be significantly smaller than thermal diffusivity of a frozenformation. The difference in thermal diffusivities between hot, dryformation and frozen formation implies that a cold zone will expand at afaster rate than a hot zone. Even if heat sources are placed relativelyclose to freeze wells that have formed a frozen barrier (e.g., about 1 maway from freeze wells that have established a frozen barrier), the heatsources will typically not be able to break through the frozen barrierif coolant continues to be supplied to the freeze wells. In certain ICPsystem embodiments, freeze wells are positioned a significant distanceaway from the heat sources and other ICP wells. The distance may beabout 3 m, 5 m, 10 m, 15 m, or greater.

Freeze wells may be placed in the formation so that there is minimaldeviation in orientation of one freeze well relative to an adjacentfreeze well. Excessive deviation may create a large separation distancebetween adjacent freeze wells that may not permit formation of aninterconnected low temperature zone between the adjacent freeze wells.Factors that may influence the manner in which freeze wells are insertedinto the ground include, but are not limited to, freeze well insertiontime, depth that the freeze wells are to be inserted, formationproperties, desired well orientation, and economics. Relatively lowdepth freeze wells may be impacted and/or vibrationally inserted intosome formations. Freeze wells may be impacted and/or vibrationallyinserted into formations to depths from about 1 m to about 100 m withoutexcessive deviation in orientation of freeze wells relative to adjacentfreeze wells in some types of formations. Freeze wells placed deep in aformation or in formations with layers that are difficult to drillthrough may be placed in the formation by directional drilling and/orgeosteering. Directional drilling with steerable motors uses aninclinometer to guide the drilling assembly. Periodic gyro logs areobtained to correct the path. An example of a directional drillingsystem is VertiTrak™ available from Baker Hughes Inteq (Houston, Tex.).Geosteering uses analysis of geological and survey data from an activelydrilling well to estimate stratigraphic and structural position neededto keep the wellbore advancing in a desired direction. The Earth'smagnetic field may be used to guide the directional drilling,particularly if multiple readings are obtained when rotating the tool ata fixed depth. Electrical, magnetic, and/or other signals produced in anadjacent freeze well may also be used to guide directionally drilledwells so that a desired spacing between adjacent wells is maintained.Relatively tight control of the spacing between freeze wells is animportant factor in minimizing the time for completion of a lowtemperature zone.

As depicted in FIG. 12, freeze wells 564 may be positioned within aportion of a formation. Freeze wells 564 and ICP wells may extendthrough overburden 560, through hydrocarbon layer 556, and intounderburden 562. In some embodiments, portions of freeze wells and ICPwells extending through the overburden 560 may be insulated to inhibitheat transfer to or from the surrounding formation.

In some embodiments, dewatering wells 568 may extend into formation 556.Dewatering wells 568 may be used to remove formation water fromhydrocarbon containing layer 556 after freeze wells 564 form perimeterbarrier 569. Water may flow through hydrocarbon containing layer 556 inan existing fracture system and channels. Only a small number ofdewatering wells 568 may be needed to dewater treatment area 571 becausethe formation may have a large hydraulic permeability due to theexisting fracture system and channels. Dewatering wells 568 may beplaced relatively close to freeze wells 564. In some embodiments,dewatering wells may be temporarily sealed after dewatering. Ifdewatering wells are placed close to freeze wells or to a lowtemperature zone formed by freeze wells, the dewatering wells may befilled with water. Expanding low temperature zone 570 may freeze thewater placed in the dewatering wells to seal the dewatering wells.Dewatering wells 568 may be re-opened after completion of in situconversion. After in situ conversion, dewatering wells 568 may be usedduring clean-up procedures for injection or removal of fluids.

Various types of refrigeration systems may be used to form a lowtemperature zone. Determination of an appropriate refrigeration systemmay be based on many factors, including, but not limited to: type offreeze well; a distance between adjacent freeze wells; refrigerant; timeframe in which to form a low temperature zone; depth of the lowtemperature zone; temperature differential to which the refrigerant willbe subjected; chemical and physical properties of the refrigerant;environmental concerns related to potential refrigerant releases, leaks,or spills; economics; formation water flow in the formation; compositionand properties of formation water, including the salinity of theformation water; and various properties of the formation such as thermalconductivity, thermal diffusivity, and heat capacity.

A circulated fluid refrigeration system may utilize a liquid refrigerantthat is circulated through freeze wells. A liquid circulation systemutilizes heat transfer between a circulated liquid and the formationwithout a significant portion of the refrigerant undergoing a phasechange. The liquid may be any type of heat transfer fluid able tofunction at cold temperatures. Some of the desired properties for aliquid refrigerant are: a low working temperature, low viscosity, highspecific heat capacity, high thermal conductivity, low corrosiveness,and low toxicity. A low working temperature of the refrigerant allowsfor formation of a large low temperature zone around a freeze well. Alow working temperature of the liquid should be about −20° C. or lower.Fluids having low working temperatures at or below −20° C. may includecertain salt solutions (e.g., solutions containing calcium chloride orlithium chloride). Other salt solutions may include salts of certainorganic acids (e.g., potassium formate, potassium acetate, potassiumcitrate, ammonium formate, ammonium acetate, ammonium citrate, sodiumcitrate, sodium formate, sodium acetate). One liquid that may be used asa refrigerant below −50° C. is Freezium®, available from KemiraChemicals (Helsinki, Finland). Another liquid refrigerant is a solutionof ammonia and water with a weight percent of ammonia between about 20%and about 40% (i.e., aqua ammonia). Aqua ammonia has several propertiesand characteristics that make use of aqua ammonia as a refrigerantdesirable. Such properties and characteristics include, but are notlimited to, a very low freezing point, a low viscosity, readyavailability, and low cost.

In certain circumstances (e.g., where hydrocarbon containing portions ofa formation are deeper than about 300 m), it may be desirable tominimize the number of freeze wells (i.e., increase freeze well spacing)to improve project economics. Using a refrigerant that can go to lowtemperatures (e.g., aqua ammonia) may allow for the use of a largefreeze well spacing.

A refrigerant that is capable of being chilled below a freezingtemperature of formation water may be used to form a low temperaturezone. The following equation (the Sanger equation) may be used to modelthe time t₁ needed to form a frozen barrier of radius R around a freezewell having a surface temperature of T_(s):

$\begin{matrix}{t_{1} = {\frac{R^{2}L_{1}}{4k_{f}v_{s}}\left( {{2\ln \frac{R}{r_{o}}} - 1 + \frac{c_{vf}v_{s}}{L_{1}}} \right)}} & (1)\end{matrix}$

-   -   in which:

$L_{1} = {L\frac{a_{r}^{2} - 1}{2\ln \; a_{r}}c_{vu}v_{o}}$$a_{r} = {\frac{R_{A}}{R}.}$

In these equations, k_(f) is the thermal conductivity of the frozenmaterial; c_(vf) and c_(vu) are the volumetric heat capacity of thefrozen and unfrozen material, respectively; r_(o) is the radius of thefreeze well; v_(s) is the temperature difference between the freeze wellsurface temperature T_(s) and the freezing point of water T_(o); v_(o)is the temperature difference between the ambient ground temperatureT_(g) and the freezing point of water T_(o); L is the volumetric latentheat of freezing of the formation; R is the radius at thefrozen-unfrozen interface; and R_(A) is a radius at which there is noinfluence from the refrigeration pipe. The temperature of therefrigerant is an adjustable variable that may significantly affect thespacing between refrigeration pipes.

EQN. 1 implies that a large low temperature zone may be formed by usinga refrigerant having an initial temperature that is very low. To form alow temperature zone for in situ conversion processes for formations,the use of a refrigerant having an initial cold temperature of about−50° C. or lower may be desirable. Refrigerants having initialtemperatures warmer than about −50° C. may also be used, but suchrefrigerants may require longer times for the low temperature zonesproduced by individual freeze wells to connect. In addition, suchrefrigerants may require the use of closer freeze well spacings and/ormore freeze wells.

A refrigeration unit may be used to reduce the temperature of arefrigerant liquid to a low working temperature. In some embodiments,the refrigeration unit may utilize an ammonia vaporization cycle.Refrigeration units are available from Cool Man Inc. (Milwaukee, Wis.),Gartner Refrigeration & Manufacturing (Minneapolis, Minn.), and othersuppliers. In some embodiments, a cascading refrigeration system may beutilized with a first stage of ammonia and a second stage of carbondioxide. The circulating refrigerant through the freeze wells may be 30%by weight ammonia in water (aqua ammonia). Alternatively, a single stagecarbon dioxide refrigeration system may be used.

In some embodiments, refrigeration units for chilling refrigerant mayutilize an absorption-desorption cycle. An absorption refrigeration unitmay produce temperatures down to about −60° C. using thermal energy.Thermal energy sources used in the desorption unit of the absorptionrefrigeration unit may include, but are not limited to, hot water,steam, formation fluid, and/or exhaust gas. In some embodiments, ammoniais used as the refrigerant and water as the absorbent in the absorptionrefrigeration unit. Absorption refrigeration units are available fromStork Thermeq B.V. (Hengelo, The Netherlands).

A vaporization cycle refrigeration system may be used to form and/ormaintain a low temperature zone. A liquid refrigerant may be introducedinto a plurality of wells. The refrigerant may absorb heat from theformation and vaporize. The vaporized refrigerant may be circulated to arefrigeration unit that compresses the refrigerant to a liquid andreintroduces the refrigerant into the freeze wells. The refrigerant maybe, but is not limited to, aqua ammonia, ammonia, carbon dioxide, or alow molecular weight hydrocarbon (e.g., propane). After vaporization,the fluid may be recompressed to a liquid in a refrigeration unit orrefrigeration units and circulated back into the freeze wells. The useof a circulated refrigerant system may allow economical formation and/ormaintenance of a long low temperature zone that surrounds a largetreatment area. The use of a vaporization cycle refrigeration system mayrequire a high pressure piping system.

FIG. 13 depicts an embodiment of freeze well 564. Freeze well 564 mayinclude casing 572, inlet conduit 574, spacers 576, and wellcap 578.Spacers 576 may position inlet conduit 574 within casing 572 so that anannular space is formed between the casing and the conduit. Spacers 576may promote turbulent flow of refrigerant in the annular space betweeninlet conduit 574 and casing 572, but the spacers may also cause asignificant fluid pressure drop. Turbulent fluid flow in the annularspace may be promoted by roughening the inner surface of casing 572, byroughening the outer surface of inlet conduit 574, and/or by having asmall cross-sectional area annular space that allows for highrefrigerant velocity in the annular space. In some embodiments, spacersare not used.

Refrigerant may flow through cold side conduit 580 from a refrigerationunit to inlet conduit 574 of freeze well 564. The refrigerant may flowthrough an annular space between inlet conduit 574 and casing 572 towarm side conduit 582. Heat may transfer from the formation to casing572 and from the casing to the refrigerant in the annular space. Inletconduit 574 may be insulated to inhibit heat transfer to the refrigerantduring passage of the refrigerant into freeze well 564. In anembodiment, inlet conduit 574 is a high density polyethylene tube. Atcold temperatures, some polymers may exhibit a large amount of thermalcontraction. For example, an 800 ft (about 244 m) initial length ofpolyethylene conduit subjected to a temperature of −25° C. may contractby 20 ft (about 6 m) or more. If a high density polyethylene conduit, orother polymer conduit, is used, the large thermal contraction of thematerial must be taken into account in determining the final depth ofthe freeze well. For example, the freeze well may be drilled deeper thanneeded, and the conduit may be allowed to shrink back during use. Insome embodiments, inlet conduit 574 is an insulated metal tube. In someembodiments, the insulation may be a polymer coating, such as, but notlimited to, polyvinylchloride, high density polyethylene, and/orpolystyrene.

In some formations, water flow in the formation may be too much to allowfor the formation of a freeze well. Water flow may need to be limited toallow for the formation of a frozen barrier. In an embodiment, freezewells may be positioned between an inner row and an outer row ofdewatering wells. The inner row of dewatering wells and the outer row ofdewatering wells may be operated to have a minimal pressure differentialso that fluid flow between the inner row of dewatering wells and theouter row of dewatering wells is minimized. The dewatering wells mayremove formation water between the outer dewatering row and the innerdewatering row. The freeze wells may be initialized after removal offormation water by the dewatering wells. The freeze wells may cool theformation between the inner row and the outer row to form a lowtemperature zone. The amount of water removed by the dewatering wallsmay be reduced so that some water flows into the low temperature zone.The water entering the low temperature zone may freeze to form a frozenbarrier. After a thickness of the frozen barrier is formed that is largeenough to withstand being destroyed when the dewatering wells arestopped, the dewatering wells may be stopped.

Coiled tubing installation may reduce a number of welded connections ina length of casing. Welds in coiled tubing may be pre-tested forintegrity (e.g., by hydraulic pressure testing). Coiled tubing may beinstalled more easily and faster than installation of pipe segmentsjoined together by welded connections.

A transient fluid pulse test may be used to determine or confirmformation of a perimeter barrier. A treatment area may be saturated withformation water after formation of a perimeter barrier. A pulse may beinstigated inside a treatment area surrounded by the perimeter barrier.The pulse may be a pressure pulse that is produced by pumping fluid(e.g., water) into or out of a wellbore. In some embodiments, thepressure pulse may be applied in incremental steps of increasing fluidlevel, and responses may be monitored after each step. After thepressure pulse is applied, the transient response to the pulse may bemeasured by, for example, measuring pressures at monitor wells and/or inthe well in which the pressure pulse was applied. Monitoring wells usedto detect pressure pulses may be located outside and/or inside of thetreatment area. Caution should be used in raising the pressure too highinside the freeze wall by addition of water to avoid the possibility ofdissolving weak portions of the barrier with the added water.

In some embodiments, a pressure pulse may be applied by drawing a vacuumon the formation through a wellbore. If a frozen barrier is formed, aportion of the pulse will be reflected by the frozen barrier backtowards the source of the pulse. Sensors may be used to measure responseto the pulse. In some embodiments, a pulse or pulses are instigatedbefore freeze wells are initialized. Response to the pulses is measuredto provide a base line for future responses. After formation of aperimeter barrier, a pressure pulse initiated inside of the perimeterbarrier should not be detected by monitor wells outside of the perimeterbarrier. Reflections of the pressure pulse measured within the treatmentarea may be analyzed to provide information on the establishment,thickness, depth, and other characteristics of the frozen barrier.

In certain embodiments, hydrostatic pressures will tend to change due tonatural forces (e.g., tides, water recharge, etc.). A sensitivepiezometer (e.g., a quartz crystal sensor) may be able to accuratelymonitor natural hydrostatic pressure changes. Fluctuations in naturalhydrostatic pressure changes may indicate formation of a frozen barrieraround a treatment area. For example, if areas surrounding the treatmentarea undergo natural diurnal hydrostatic pressure changes but the areaenclosed by the frozen barrier does not, this is an indication offormation of the frozen barrier.

In some embodiments, a tracer test may be used to determine or confirmformation of a frozen barrier. A tracer fluid may be injected on a firstside of a perimeter barrier. Monitor wells on a second side of theperimeter barrier may be operated to detect the tracer fluid. Nodetection of the tracer fluid by the monitor wells may indicate that theperimeter barrier is formed. The tracer fluid may be, but is not limitedto, carbon dioxide, argon, nitrogen, and isotope labeled water orcombinations thereof. A gas tracer test may have limited use insaturated formations because the tracer fluid may not be able to traveleasily from an injection well to a monitor well through a saturatedformation in a short period of time. In a water saturated formation, anisotope labeled water (e.g., deuterated or tritiated water) or aspecific ion dissolved in water (e.g., thiocyanate ion) may be used as atracer fluid.

In an embodiment, heat sources (e.g., heaters) may be used to heat ahydrocarbon containing formation. Because permeability and/or porosityincreases in a heated formation, produced vapors may flow considerabledistances through the formation with relatively little pressuredifferential. Increases in permeability may result from a reduction ofmass of the heated portion due to vaporization of water, removal ofhydrocarbons, and/or creation of fractures. Fluids may flow more easilythrough the heated portion. In some embodiments, production wells may beprovided in upper portions of hydrocarbon layers.

Fluid generated within a hydrocarbon containing formation may move aconsiderable distance through the hydrocarbon containing formation as avapor. The considerable distance may be over 1000 m depending on variousfactors (e.g., permeability of the formation, properties of the fluid,temperature of the formation, and pressure gradient allowing movement ofthe fluid). Due to increased permeability in formations subjected to insitu conversion and formation fluid removal, production wells may onlyneed to be provided in every other unit of heat sources or every third,fourth, fifth, or sixth units of heat sources.

In an in situ conversion process embodiment, a mixture may be producedfrom a hydrocarbon containing formation. The mixture may be producedthrough a heater well disposed in the formation. Producing the mixturethrough the heater well may increase a production rate of the mixture ascompared to a production rate of a mixture produced through a non-heaterwell. A non-heater well may include a production well. In someembodiments, a production well may be heated to increase a productionrate.

A heated production well may inhibit condensation of higher carbonnumbers (C₅ or above) in the production well. A heated production wellmay inhibit problems associated with producing a hot, multi-phase fluidfrom a formation.

A heated production well may have an improved production rate ascompared to a non-heated production well. Heat applied to the formationadjacent to the production well from the production well may increaseformation permeability adjacent to the production well by vaporizing andremoving liquid phase fluid adjacent to the production well and/or byincreasing the permeability of the formation adjacent to the productionwell by formation of macro and/or micro fractures. A heater in a lowerportion of a production well may be turned off when superposition ofheat from heat sources heats the formation sufficiently to counteractbenefits provided by heating from within the production well. In someembodiments, a heater in an upper portion of a production well mayremain on after a heater in a lower portion of the well is deactivated.The heater in the upper portion of the well may inhibit condensation andreflux of formation fluid.

Certain in situ conversion embodiments may include providing heat to afirst portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation from one or moreheat sources. Formation fluids may be produced from the first portion. Asecond portion of the formation may remain unpyrolyzed by maintainingtemperature in the second portion below a pyrolysis temperature ofhydrocarbons in the formation. In some embodiments, the second portionor significant sections of the second portion may remain unheated.

A second portion that remains unpyrolyzed may be adjacent to a firstportion of the formation that is subjected to pyrolysis. The secondportion may provide structural strength to the formation. The secondportion may be between the first portion and the third portion.Formation fluids may be produced from the third portion of theformation. A processed formation may have a pattern that resembles astriped or checkerboard pattern with alternating pyrolyzed portions andunpyrolyzed portions. In some in situ conversion embodiments, columns ofunpyrolyzed portions of formation may remain in a formation that hasundergone in situ conversion.

Unpyrolyzed portions of formation among pyrolyzed portions of formationmay provide structural strength to the formation. The structuralstrength may inhibit subsidence of the formation. Inhibiting subsidencemay reduce or eliminate subsidence problems such as changing surfacelevels and/or decreasing permeability and flow of fluids in theformation due to compaction of the formation.

In some in situ conversion process embodiments, a portion of ahydrocarbon containing formation may be heated at a heating rate in arange from about 0.1° C./day to about 50° C./day. Alternatively, aportion of a hydrocarbon containing formation may be heated at a heatingrate in a range of about 0.1° C./day to about 10° C./day. For example, amajority of hydrocarbons may be produced from a formation at a heatingrate within a range of about 0.1° C./day to about 10° C./day. Inaddition, a hydrocarbon containing formation may be heated at a rate ofless than about 0.7° C./day through a significant portion of a pyrolysistemperature range. The pyrolysis temperature range may include a rangeof temperatures as described in above embodiments. For example, theheated portion may be heated at such a rate for a time greater than 50%of the time needed to span the temperature range, more than 75% of thetime needed to span the temperature range, or more than 90% of the timeneeded to span the temperature range.

A rate at which a hydrocarbon containing formation is heated may affectthe quantity and quality of the formation fluids produced from thehydrocarbon containing formation. For example, heating at high heatingrates (e.g., as is done during a Fischer Assay analysis) may allow forproduction of a large quantity of condensable hydrocarbons from ahydrocarbon containing formation. The products of such a process may beof a significantly lower quality than would be produced using heatingrates less than about 10° C./day. Heating at a rate of temperatureincrease less than approximately 10° C./day may allow pyrolysis to occurwithin a pyrolysis temperature range in which production of undesirableproducts and heavy hydrocarbons may be reduced. In addition, a rate oftemperature increase of less than about 3° C./day may further increasethe quality of the produced condensable hydrocarbons by further reducingthe production of undesirable products and further reducing productionof heavy hydrocarbons from a hydrocarbon containing formation.

The heating rate may be selected based on a number of factors including,but not limited to, the maximum temperature possible at the well, apredetermined quality of formation fluids that may be produced from theformation, and/or spacing between heat sources. A quality of hydrocarbonfluids may be defined by an API gravity of condensable hydrocarbons, byolefin content, by the nitrogen, sulfur and/or oxygen content, etc. Inan in situ conversion process embodiment, heat may be provided to atleast a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation to produceformation fluids having an API gravity of greater than about 20°. TheAPI gravity may vary, however, depending on a number of factorsincluding the heating rate and a pressure within the portion of theformation and the time relative to initiation of the heat sources whenthe formation fluid is produced.

Subsurface pressure in a hydrocarbon containing formation may correspondto the fluid pressure generated within the formation. Heatinghydrocarbons within a hydrocarbon containing formation may generatefluids by pyrolysis. The generated fluids may be vaporized within theformation. Vaporization and pyrolysis reactions may increase thepressure within the formation. Fluids that contribute to the increase inpressure may include, but are not limited to, fluids produced duringpyrolysis and water vaporized during heating. As temperatures within aselected section of a heated portion of the formation increase, apressure within the selected section may increase as a result ofincreased fluid generation and vaporization of water. Controlling a rateof fluid removal from the formation may allow for control of pressure inthe formation.

In some embodiments, pressure within a selected section of a heatedportion of a hydrocarbon containing formation may vary depending onfactors such as depth, distance from a heat source, a richness of thehydrocarbons within the hydrocarbon containing formation, and/or adistance from a producer well. Pressure within a formation may bedetermined at a number of different locations (e.g., near or atproduction wells, near or at heat sources, or at monitor wells).

Heating of a hydrocarbon containing formation to a pyrolysis temperaturerange may occur before substantial permeability has been generatedwithin the hydrocarbon containing formation. An initial lack ofpermeability may inhibit the transport of generated fluids from apyrolysis zone within the formation to a production well. As heat isinitially transferred from a heat source to a hydrocarbon containingformation, a fluid pressure within the hydrocarbon containing formationmay increase proximate a heat source. Such an increase in fluid pressuremay be caused by generation of fluids during pyrolysis of at least somehydrocarbons in the formation. The increased fluid pressure may bereleased, monitored, altered, and/or controlled through the heat source.For example, the heat source may include a valve that allows for removalof some fluid from the formation. In some heat source embodiments, theheat source may include an open wellbore configuration that inhibitspressure damage to the heat source.

In some in situ conversion process embodiments, pressure generated byexpansion of pyrolysis fluids or other fluids generated in the formationmay be allowed to increase although an open path to the production wellor any other pressure sink may not yet exist in the formation. The fluidpressure may be allowed to increase towards a lithostatic pressure.Fractures in the hydrocarbon containing formation may form when thefluid approaches the lithostatic pressure. For example, fractures mayform from a heat source to a production well. The generation offractures within the heated portion may relieve some of the pressurewithin the portion.

In an in situ conversion process embodiment, pressure may be increasedwithin a selected section of a portion of a hydrocarbon containingformation to a selected pressure during pyrolysis. A selected pressuremay be within a range from about 2 bars absolute to about 72 barsabsolute or, in some embodiments, 2 bars absolute to 36 bars absolute.Alternatively, a selected pressure may be within a range from about 2bars absolute to about 18 bars absolute. In some in situ conversionprocess embodiments, a majority of hydrocarbon fluids may be producedfrom a formation having a pressure within a range from about 2 barsabsolute to about 18 bars absolute. The pressure during pyrolysis mayvary or be varied. The pressure may be varied to alter and/or control acomposition of a formation fluid produced, to control a percentage ofcondensable fluid as compared to non-condensable fluid, and/or tocontrol an API gravity of fluid being produced. For example, decreasingpressure may result in production of a larger condensable fluidcomponent. The condensable fluid component may contain a largerpercentage of olefins.

In some in situ conversion process embodiments, increased pressure dueto fluid generation may be maintained within the heated portion of theformation. Maintaining increased pressure within a formation may inhibitformation subsidence during in situ conversion. Increased formationpressure may promote generation of high quality products duringpyrolysis. Increased formation pressure may facilitate vapor phaseproduction of fluids from the formation. Vapor phase production mayallow for a reduction in size of collection conduits used to transportfluids produced from the formation. Increased formation pressure mayreduce or eliminate the need to compress formation fluids at the surfaceto transport the fluids in collection conduits to treatment facilities.

Increased pressure in the formation may also be maintained to producemore and/or improved formation fluids. In certain in situ conversionprocess embodiments, significant amounts (e.g., a majority) of thehydrocarbon fluids produced from a formation may be non-condensablehydrocarbons. Pressure may be selectively increased and/or maintainedwithin the formation to promote formation of smaller chain hydrocarbonsin the formation. Producing small chain hydrocarbons in the formationmay allow more non-condensable hydrocarbons to be produced from theformation. The condensable hydrocarbons produced from the formation athigher pressure may be of a higher quality (e.g., higher API gravity)than condensable hydrocarbons produced from the formation at a lowerpressure.

A high pressure may be maintained within a heated portion of ahydrocarbon containing formation to inhibit production of formationfluids having carbon numbers greater than, for example, about 25. Somehigh carbon number compounds may be entrained in vapor in the formationand may be removed from the formation with the vapor. A high pressure inthe formation may inhibit entrainment of high carbon number compoundsand/or multi-ring hydrocarbon compounds in the vapor. Increasingpressure within the hydrocarbon containing formation may increase aboiling point of a fluid within the portion. High carbon numbercompounds and/or multi-ring hydrocarbon compounds may remain in a liquidphase in the formation for significant time periods. The significanttime periods may provide sufficient time for the compounds to pyrolyzeto form lower carbon number compounds.

Maintaining increased pressure within a heated portion of the formationmay surprisingly allow for production of large quantities ofhydrocarbons of increased quality. Higher pressures may inhibitvaporization of higher molecular weight hydrocarbons. Inhibitingvaporization of higher molecular weight hydrocarbons may result inhigher molecular weight hydrocarbons remaining in the formation. Highermolecular weight hydrocarbons may react with lower molecular weighthydrocarbons in the formation to vaporize the lower molecular weighthydrocarbons. Vaporized hydrocarbons may be more readily transportedthrough the formation.

Generation of lower molecular weight hydrocarbons (and correspondingincreased vapor phase transport) is believed to be due, in part, toautogenous generation and reaction of hydrogen within a portion of thehydrocarbon containing formation. For example, maintaining an increasedpressure may force hydrogen generated during pyrolysis into a liquidphase (e.g., by dissolving). Heating the portion to a temperature withina pyrolysis temperature range may pyrolyze hydrocarbons within theformation to generate pyrolyzation fluids in a liquid phase. Thegenerated components may include double bonds and/or radicals. H₂ in theliquid phase may reduce double bonds of the generated pyrolyzationfluids, thereby reducing a potential for polymerization or formation oflong chain compounds from the generated pyrolyzation fluids. Inaddition, hydrogen may also neutralize radicals in the generatedpyrolyzation fluids. Therefore, H₂ in the liquid phase may inhibit thegenerated pyrolyzation fluids from reacting with each other and/or withother compounds in the formation. Shorter chain hydrocarbons may enterthe vapor phase and may be produced from the formation.

Operating an in situ conversion process at increased pressure may allowfor vapor phase production of formation fluid from the formation. Vaporphase production may permit increased recovery of lighter (andrelatively high quality) pyrolyzation fluids. Vapor phase production mayresult in less formation fluid being left in the formation after thefluid is produced by pyrolysis. Vapor phase production may allow forfewer production wells in the formation than are present using liquidphase or liquid/vapor phase production. Fewer production wells maysignificantly reduce equipment costs associated with an in situconversion process.

In an embodiment, a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation may beheated to increase a partial pressure of H₂. In some embodiments, anincreased H₂ partial pressure may include H₂ partial pressures in arange from about 0.5 bars absolute to about 7 bars absolute.Alternatively, an increased H₂ partial pressure range may include H₂partial pressures in a range from about 5 bars absolute to about 7 barsabsolute. For example, a majority of hydrocarbon fluids may be producedwherein a H₂ partial pressure is within a range of about 5 bars absoluteto about 7 bars absolute. A range of H₂ partial pressures within thepyrolysis H₂ partial pressure range may vary depending on, for example,temperature and pressure of the heated portion of the formation.

Maintaining a H₂ partial pressure within the formation of greater thanatmospheric pressure may increase an API value of produced condensablehydrocarbon fluids. Maintaining an increased H₂ partial pressure mayincrease an API value of produced condensable hydrocarbon fluids togreater than about 25° or, in some instances, greater than about 30°.Maintaining an increased H₂ partial pressure within a heated portion ofa hydrocarbon containing formation may increase a concentration of H₂within the heated portion. The H₂ may be available to react withpyrolyzed components of the hydrocarbons. Reaction of H₂ with thepyrolyzed components of hydrocarbons may reduce polymerization ofolefins into tars and other cross-linked, difficult to upgrade,products. Therefore, production of hydrocarbon fluids having low APIgravity values may be inhibited.

Controlling pressure and temperature within a hydrocarbon containingformation may allow properties of the produced formation fluids to becontrolled. For example, composition and quality of formation fluidsproduced from the formation may be altered by altering an averagepressure and/or an average temperature in a selected section of a heatedportion of the formation. The quality of the produced fluids may beevaluated based on characteristics of the fluid such as, but not limitedto, API gravity, percent olefins in the produced formation fluids,ethene to ethane ratio, atomic hydrogen to carbon ratio, percent ofhydrocarbons within produced formation fluids having carbon numbersgreater than 25, total equivalent production (gas and liquid), totalliquids production, and/or liquid yield as a percent of Fischer Assay.

In an in situ conversion process embodiment, heating a portion of ahydrocarbon containing formation in situ to a temperature less than anupper pyrolysis temperature may increase permeability of the heatedportion. Permeability may increase due to formation of thermal fractureswithin the heated portion. Thermal fractures may be generated by thermalexpansion of the formation and/or by localized increases in pressure dueto vaporization of liquids (e.g., water and/or hydrocarbons) in theformation. As a temperature of the heated portion increases, water inthe formation may be vaporized. The vaporized water may escape and/or beremoved from the formation. Removal of water may also increase thepermeability of the heated portion. In addition, permeability of theheated portion may also increase as a result of mass loss from theformation due to generation of pyrolysis fluids in the formation.Pyrolysis fluid may be removed from the formation through productionwells.

Heating the formation from heat sources placed in the formation mayallow a permeability of the heated portion of a hydrocarbon containingformation to be substantially uniform. A substantially uniformpermeability may inhibit channeling of formation fluids in the formationand allow production from substantially all portions of the heatedformation. An assessed (e.g., calculated or estimated) permeability ofany selected portion in the formation having a substantially uniformpermeability may not vary by more than a factor of 10 from an assessedaverage permeability of the selected portion.

Permeability of a selected section within the heated portion of thehydrocarbon containing formation may rapidly increase when the selectedsection is heated by conduction. In some embodiments, pyrolyzing atleast a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation may increase apermeability within a selected section of the portion to greater thanabout 10 millidarcy, 100 millidarcy, 1 darcy, 10 darcy, 20 darcy, or 50darcy. A permeability of a selected section of the portion may increaseby a factor of more than about 100, 1,000, 10,000, 100,000 or more.

In some in situ conversion process embodiments, superposition (e.g.,overlapping influence) of heat from one or more heat sources may resultin substantially uniform heating of a portion of a hydrocarboncontaining formation. Since formations during heating will typicallyhave a temperature gradient that is highest near heat sources andreduces with increasing distance from the heat sources, “substantiallyuniform” heating means heating such that temperature in a majority ofthe section does not vary by more than 100° C. from an assessed averagetemperature in the majority of the selected section (volume) beingtreated.

In an embodiment, production of hydrocarbons from a formation isinhibited until at least some hydrocarbons within the formation havebeen pyrolyzed. A mixture may be produced from the formation at a timewhen the mixture includes a selected quality in the mixture (e.g., APIgravity, hydrogen concentration, aromatic content, etc.). In someembodiments, the selected quality includes an API gravity of at leastabout 20°, 30°, or 40°. Inhibiting production until at least somehydrocarbons are pyrolyzed may increase conversion of heavy hydrocarbonsto light hydrocarbons. Inhibiting initial production may minimize theproduction of heavy hydrocarbons from the formation. Production ofsubstantial amounts of heavy hydrocarbons may require expensiveequipment and/or reduce the life of production equipment.

When production of hydrocarbons from the formation is inhibited, thepressure in the formation tends to increase with temperature in theformation because of thermal expansion and/or phase change of heavyhydrocarbons and other fluids (e.g., water) in the formation. Pressurewithin the formation may have to be maintained below a selected pressureto inhibit unwanted production, fracturing of the overburden orunderburden, and/or coking of hydrocarbons in the formation. Theselected pressure may be a lithostatic or hydrostatic pressure of theformation. For example, the selected pressure may be about 150 barsabsolute or, in some embodiments, the selected pressure may be about 35bars absolute. The pressure in the formation may be controlled bycontrolling production rate from production wells in the formation. Inother embodiments, the pressure in the formation is controlled byreleasing pressure through one or more pressure relief wells in theformation. Pressure relief wells may be heat sources or separate wellsinserted into the formation. Formation fluid removed from the formationthrough the relief wells may be sent to a treatment facility. Producingat least some hydrocarbons from the formation may inhibit the pressurein the formation from rising above the selected pressure.

Formations may be selected for treatment based on oxygen content of apart of the formation. The oxygen content of the formation may beindicative of oxygen-containing compounds producible from the formation.For some hydrocarbon containing formations subjected to in situconversion (e.g., coal formations, oil shale formations with Type IIkerogen), between about 1 wt % and about 30 wt % of condensablehydrocarbons in pyrolysis fluid produced from the formation may includeoxygen-containing compounds. In certain embodiments, someoxygen-containing compounds (e.g., phenols, and/or phenolic compounds)may have sufficient economic value to justify separating theoxygen-containing compounds from the produced fluid. For example,separation of phenols from the produced stream may allow separatedphenols to be sold and may reduce a cost of hydrotreating the producedfluids. “Phenols” and/or “phenolic compounds” refer to aromatic ringswith an attached OH group, including substituted aromatic rings such ascresol, xylenol, resorcinol, etc.

A method to enhance the production of phenols from a formation fluidobtained from an in situ thermal conversion process may includecontrolling conditions in a section of the formation. In someembodiments, temperature, heating rate, pressure, and/or hydrogenpartial pressure may be controlled to increase a percentage ofoxygen-containing compounds in the pyrolysis fluid or to increase aquantity of oxygen-containing compounds produced from the formation. Thequantity of oxygen-containing compounds may be increased by producingmore condensable hydrocarbons from the formation.

In some embodiments, a method for treating a hydrocarbon containingformation in situ may include providing hydrogen to a section of theformation under certain conditions. The hydrogen may be provided througha heater well or production well located in or proximate the section.While relatively expensive (i.e., relatively expensive to make,separate, and/or procure), hydrogen may be advantageously provided tothe section when formation conditions promote efficient use of hydrogen.After hydrogen has been provided to the section, controlling theproduction of hydrogen from the formation may reduce an overall cost ofproduction. Controlling hydrogen production may include, but is notlimited to, inhibiting gas production from the formation, controlling apartial pressure of hydrogen in the section or in fluids produced fromthe section, and/or maintaining a partial pressure of hydrogen in thesection or in fluids produced from the section. For example, the sectionmay be shut in for a desired period of time to allow the hydrogen topermeate or “soak” the section. Increasing an amount of hydrogen in thesection may increase quantity and/or quality of formation fluid produced(e.g., production of condensable hydrocarbons and/or phenols may beincreased).

In some embodiments, hydrogen may be provided to a hydrocarboncontaining formation after a section of the formation has reached adesired average temperature (e.g., 290° C., 320° C., 375° C., or 400°C.). Thus, hydrogen may not be provided until the hydrogen will have themaximum desired effect, and such effect is often temperature dependent.Pressure and/or hydrogen partial pressure in the formation may becontrolled to allow hydrogen to permeate the treatment area. Formationfluid may be produced after a desired temperature has been reached,after an amount of time has elapsed, a certain hydrogen partialpressure, and/or after a certain formation pressure has been achieved.In some embodiments, production of formation fluid may be controlled toincrease production of condensable hydrocarbons and/or phenols.

Hydrogen partial pressure may be controlled in a formation. The hydrogenpartial pressure may be controlled to inhibit or limit the amount ofintroduced hydrogen that is produced from the formation as hydrogen.Hydrogen partial pressure may be controlled (e.g., enhanced) byinhibiting gas production from the formation or reducing production fromthe formation for a period of time after introduction of hydrogen to theformation. In this manner, hydrogen introduced in the formation ismaintained in the formation, and thus provides benefits in theformation. In certain embodiments, hydrogen partial pressure in theformation may be controlled by producing fluid from the formation in aliquid phase (the hydrogen tends to preferentially stay in the gasphase). For example, a submersible pump and/or pressure lift may be usedto remove fluid from the formation in a liquid phase. Controllinghydrogen partial pressure may result in an increase in production ofcondensable hydrocarbons from the formation. As hydrogen permeates thesection and/or the formation, the section pressure may decrease andapproach an initial pressure measured in the section. Formation fluidmay be produced when the pressure of the section (e.g., a pressuremeasured at a production or monitoring well) approaches a desiredproduction pressure. In some embodiments, an amount of hydrogen in themixture produced from the formation may be measured by assessing apartial pressure of hydrogen in gases produced from one or moreproduction wells.

In some embodiments, a formation may be heated to a desired averagetemperature (e.g., 290° C., 320° C., 375° C., or 400° C.). Hydrogen maybe provided to a hydrocarbon containing formation until a mixture ofhydrogen and formation fluid is produced at a production well. Onceproduction of hydrogen and the formation fluid occurs at the productionwell, delivery of hydrogen may be decreased and/or stopped. Pressureand/or hydrogen partial pressure in the formation may be controlled toallow hydrogen to permeate the treatment area. Formation fluid may beproduced after a desired temperature has been reached, an amount of timehas elapsed, a certain hydrogen partial pressure and/or a certainformation pressure has been achieved. In certain embodiments, a rate ofproduction may be reduced based upon an amount of hydrogen produced inproduced formation fluid. In certain embodiments, an amount of hydrogenin the mixture produced from the formation may be measured by assessinga partial pressure of hydrogen in gases produced from one or moreproduction wells. In some embodiments, production of formation fluid maybe controlled to increase production of condensable hydrocarbons and/orphenols.

In certain embodiments, hydrogen partial pressure may be controlled toinhibit or limit the amount of introduced hydrogen that is produced froma formation as hydrogen. Hydrogen partial pressure may be controlled byinhibiting gas production from the formation and/or reducing productionfrom the formation for a period of time after introduction of hydrogento the formation. In some embodiments, hydrogen partial pressure in theformation may be controlled by producing fluid from the formation in aliquid phase. A submersible pump and/or pressure lift may be used toremove fluid from the formation in a liquid phase. Controlling hydrogenpartial pressure may result in an increase in production of condensablehydrocarbons and/or phenols from the formation. As hydrogen permeatesthe section and/or the formation, the pressure in the section maydecrease and approach an initial pressure measured in the section.Formation fluid may be produced when the pressure of the section (e.g.,a pressure measured at a production or monitoring well) approaches adesired production pressure. In some embodiments, an amount of hydrogenin the mixture produced from the formation may be measured by measuringa partial pressure of hydrogen in gases produced from one or moreproduction wells.

In certain embodiments, a perimeter barrier (e.g., a frozen barrier) maybe formed around a section of a hydrocarbon containing formation todefine a treatment area. Hydrogen may be provided to the treatment area.Pressure in the treatment area may be controlled to allow hydrogen topermeate the treatment area. Heat may be provided by one or more heatersto pyrolyze hydrocarbons in the treatment area. Formation fluid may beproduced after a desired temperature has been reached, an amount of timehas elapsed, and/or a certain pressure has been achieved. In someembodiments, production of formation fluid may be controlled to increaseproduction of condensable hydrocarbons and/or phenols.

In some embodiments, hydrogen partial pressure may be controlled (e.g.,enhanced) by inhibiting gas production from the formation (e.g.,shutting in a production well) or reducing production from the formationfor a period of time after introduction of hydrogen into the formation.In this manner, hydrogen introduced in the formation is maintained inthe formation, and thus provides benefits in the formation. In certainembodiments, hydrogen partial pressure in the formation may becontrolled by producing fluid from the formation in a liquid phase (thehydrogen tends to preferentially stay in the gas phase). A submersiblepump and/or pressure lift may be used to remove fluid from the formationin a liquid phase. Controlling hydrogen partial pressure may result inan increase in production of condensable hydrocarbons from theformation.

In some embodiments, a valve or valve system may be used to maintain,alter, and/or control pressure in a section of a hydrocarbon containingformation undergoing hydrogen permeation. In some embodiments, pressurein the formation and/or the section may be controlled at injectionwells, heater wells, and/or production wells. After hydrogen isintroduced into the formation, production of formation fluids and/orpressure control through the valve system may be adjusted to stop ordiminish fluid production so that a hydrogen component percentage is atan acceptable level in the produced fluid when production is resumed(i.e., little or no hydrogen introduced into the formation is beingproduced as hydrogen in the produced fluid). In some embodiments, aninitial pressure of the formation may be monitored before introductionof hydrogen into the formation. The pressure of the formation may bemonitored after introducing hydrogen into the formation. Introduction ofhydrogen in the formation may increase the pressure in the formation. Ashydrogen permeates the formation, pressure in the formation may decreaseover time. When the pressure in the formation decreases at least to thepressure in the formation before hydrogen is provided, fluid may beproduced from the formation.

In some embodiments, hydrogen may be provided to a section of aformation as a mixture of hydrogen and a carrier fluid. A carrier fluidmay include, but is not limited to, inert gases, condensablehydrocarbons, methane, carbon dioxide, steam, surfactants, and/orcombinations thereof. Providing hydrogen to the formation as part of amixture may increase the efficiency of hydrogenation reactions in theformation. Increasing the efficiency of hydrogenation reactions mayincrease an economic value of produced formation fluid. Concentration ofhydrogen in the mixture may range from about 1 wt % to about 80 wt %. Insome embodiments, concentration of hydrogen in a mixture of hydrogen andcarrier fluid provided to a section of a formation may be adjusted bycontrolling a flow rate of the mixture.

A mixture of hydrogen and a carrier fluid may be provided to ahydrocarbon containing formation after a section of the formation hasreached a desired average temperature (e.g., 290° C., 320° C., 375° C.,or 400° C.). In certain embodiments, a mixture of hydrogen and a carrierfluid may be provided to a section of a formation before heating thesection. After the mixture has been provided to the section, hydrogenproduction in the section may be controlled by, for example, inhibitinggas production from the formation, controlling a partial pressure ofhydrogen in the section or in fluids produced from the section, and/ormaintaining a partial pressure of hydrogen in the section or in fluidsproduced from the section. Pyrolysis fluid may be produced after adesired temperature has been reached, after an amount of time haselapsed, after a certain pressure, and/or after a certain hydrogenpartial pressure has been achieved. For example, permeating asub-bituminous coal formation with a mixture of hydrogen in methane mayincrease condensable hydrocarbon production and/or phenol productionfrom the coal.

TABLES 1, 2, and 3 provide a summary of data related to laboratoryexperiments with coal obtained from the Wyoming Anderson Coal Formation.TABLE 1 summarizes the general characteristics of the coal samples takenfrom the formation.

In a first experiment, a first coal sample was placed in a vessel andheated uniformly. The vessel was heated at about 2° C. per day until thecoal reached about 450° C. A total pressure of the vessel was about 50psig and a generated hydrogen partial pressure was about 2 psig. In asecond experiment, hydropyrolysis of a second coal sample was conductedby heating the coal under a hydrogen rich atmosphere (about 79 mol %hydrogen). The vessel was heated at about 2° C. per day until the secondcoal sample reached about 490° C. A total pressure of the vessel wasabout 60 psig and a hydrogen partial pressure was about 48 psig. TABLE 2summarizes the experimental results from the two experiments performedon coal samples obtained from the Wyoming Anderson Coal Formation.

TABLE 1 Wyoming Anderson Coal Characteristics Sample ID Anderson CoalSite Buckskin Mine Basin Powder River State Wyoming Age PaleoceneStratigraphic Unit Fort Union Fm Rank SubC % Ro 0.32 Oil (wt % FA) 4.61Gas (wt % FA) 14.35 Water (wt % FA) 36.33 Spent Coal (wt % FA) 44.06 Oil(gal/ton, FA) 11.16 Water (gal/ton, FA) 87.08 Moisture (wt %, as-rec'd)28.17 Ash (wt %, as-rec'd) 4.0 Vol. Matter (wt %, as-rec'd) 33.83 FixedCarbon (wt %, as-rec'd) 34.0 Carbon (wt %, as-rec'd) 51.57 Hydrogen (wt%, as-rec'd) 3.44 Oxygen (wt %, as-rec'd) 11.51 Nitrogen (wt %,as-rec'd) 0.96 Sulfur (wt %, as-rec'd) 0.33

TABLE 2 Regular Hydro- Pyrolysis Pyrolysis Parameter Run Run HeatingRate (° C./day) 2 2 End Temperature (° C.) 448 492 Total Pressure (psig)50 60 H₂-Pressure (psig) 2 48 Constant H₂ Sweep Rate 0 272 (Scf/day/ton,raw coal) Avg H₂ consuming Rate 0 108 (Scf/day/ton, raw coal) to 448° C.H₂ consuming Rate 0 143 (Scf/day/ton, raw coal) at 448° C. Total H₂Injected per bbl oil 0 57060 produced (Scf/bbl) at 448° C. Total H₂consumed per bbl oil 0 23119 produced (Scf/bbl) at 448° C. Avg H₂consuming Rate 0 114 (Scf/day/ton, raw coal) to 492° C. H₂ consumingRate 0 130 (Scf/day/ton, raw coal) at 492° C. Raw Sample Weight (g) 958600 End Spent Coal (g) 453.94 215.67 Total Oil (g) 21.60 47.53 TotalWater (g) 361.60 238.90 End Gas without H₂/N₂/O₂ (g) 109.95 108.46 OilYield (gal/ton coal) at 448° C. 7.08 20.97 Oil Recovery (vol % FA) at448° C. 63.40 187.93 Oil API at 448° C. 32.58 18.89 Paraffins (wt %) at448° C. 26.89 19.54 Cycloparaffins (wt %) at 448° C. 9.60 5.80 Phenols(wt %) at 448° C. 34.51 27.32 Monoaros (wt %) at 448° C. 19.36 16.56Diaros (wt %) at 448° C. 9.14 20.70 Triaros (wt %) at 448° C. 0.51 8.91Tetraaros (wt %) at 448° C. 0.00 1.17 Water Yield (gal/ton coal) at 448°C. 90.33 94.34 Water to Oil Ratio (total water) at 448° C. 12.77 4.50Water to Oil Ratio (pyrolysis water) at 448° C. 3.20 1.27 Gas w/oH₂/N₂/O₂ (scf/ton coal) at 448° C. 2521.71 3807.39 Methane (scf/toncoal) at 448° C. 1048.71 1841.53 C₂-C₄ HC Gas (scf/ton coal) at 448° C.234.19 612.97 Gas w/o H₂/N₂/O₂ (scf-gas/bbl-oil) at 448° C. 14968.067624.54 Methane (scf-gas/bbl-oil) at 448° C. 6224.80 3687.78 C₂-C₄ HCGas (scf-gas/bbl-oil) at 448° C. 1390.08 1227.51 Gas to Oil Ratio (Gasw/o H₂/N₂/O₂) at 448° C. 14.97 7.62 Gas to Oil Ratio (C₁-C₄ Gas) at 448°C. 7.61 4.92 C₁ (mol %) at 448° C. 41.59 48.37 C₂ (mol %) at 448° C.5.80 10.95 C₃ (mol %) at 448° C. 2.46 3.87 C₄ (mol %) at 448° C. 1.031.28 CO (mol %) at 448° C. 0.89 4.40 CO₂ (mol %) at 448° C. 48.10 31.11H₂S (mol %) at 448° C. 0.13 0.02 NH₃ (mol %) at 448° C. 0.004 0.000 OilYield (gal/ton coal) at 492° C. 22.58 Oil Recovery (vol % FA) at 492° C.202.33 Oil API at 492° C. 19.70 Paraffins (wt %) at 492° C. 20.28Cycloparaffins (wt %) at 492° C. 5.39 Phenolic compounds (wt %) at 492°C. 25.29 Monoaros (wt %) at 492° C. 16.01 Diaros (wt %) at 492° C. 21.84Triaros (wt %) at 492° C. 9.91 Tetraaros (wt %) at 492° C. 1.28 WaterYield (gal/ton coal) at 492° C. 95.06 Water to Oil Ratio (total water)at 492° C. 4.21 Water to Oil Ratio (pyrolysis water) at 492° C. 1.21 Gasw/o H₂/N₂/O₂ (scf/ton coal) at 492° C. 4569.68 Methane (scf/ton coal) at492° C. 2429.25 C₂-C₄ HC Gas (scf/ton coal) at 492° C. 762.42 Gas w/oH₂/N₂/O₂ (scf-gas/bbl-oil) at 492° C. 8499.72 Methane (scf-gas/bbl-oil)at 492° C. 4518.47 C₂-C₄ HC Gas (scf-gas/bbl-oil) at 492° C. 1418.12 Gasto Oil Ratio (Gas w/o H₂/N₂/O₂) at 492° C. 8.50 Gas to Oil Ratio (C₁-C₄Gas) at 492° C. 5.94 C₁ (mol %) at 492° C. 53.16 C₂ (mol %) at 492° C.12.08 C₃ (mol %) at 492° C. 3.52 C₄ (mol %) at 492° C. 1.09 CO (mol %)at 492° C. 4.04 CO₂ (mol %) at 492° C. 26.09 H₂S (mol %) at 492° C. 0.02NH₃ (mol %) at 492° C. 0.00

FIG. 14 depicts condensable hydrocarbon production from Wyoming AndersonCoal based on the pyrolysis experiment and the hydropyrolysisexperiment. Curve 584 depicts data obtained from the hydropyrolysisexperiment (i.e., H₂ was added to the coal during pyrolysis). Curve 586depicts data obtained from pyrolysis without the addition of hydrogenduring pyrolysis. Condensable hydrocarbon yield at 448° C. was about7.08 (gal/ton of coal) for the pyrolysis experiment. Condensablehydrocarbon yield at 448° C. was about 20.97 (gal/ton of coal) for thehydropyrolysis experiment. FIG. 14 demonstrates an almost three-foldincrease in condensable hydrocarbon production when hydrogen is added tothe coal.

FIG. 15 depicts composition of condensable hydrocarbons produced duringpyrolysis and hydropyrolysis experiments on Wyoming Anderson Coal. TheAPI gravity of the oil obtained from the pyrolysis experiment at 448° C.was about 33°. The API gravity of the oil obtained from thehydropyrolysis experiment at 448° C. was about 19°. The difference inthe API gravity may be due to the greater weight percentage ofdiaromatics and higher order aromatics in the oil obtained from thehydropyrolysis experiment.

FIG. 16 depicts non-condensable hydrocarbon production from WyomingAnderson Coal based on the pyrolysis experiment and the hydropyrolysisexperiment. Curve 588 depicts data obtained from the hydropyrolysisexperiment. Curve 590 depicts data obtained from the pyrolysisexperiment. Non-condensable hydrocarbon yield at 448° C. was about 2522scf/ton of coal for the pyrolysis experiment. Non-condensablehydrocarbon yield at 448° C. was about 3807 scf/ton of coal for thehydropyrolysis experiment.

FIG. 17 depicts the composition of non-condensable fluid produced duringpyrolysis and hydropyrolysis experiments on Wyoming Anderson Coal. Thenon-condensable fluid produced in the hydropyrolysis experimentcontained a greater mole percentage of methane (C1) than did thepyrolysis experiment. The non-condensable fluid produced in thehydropyrolysis experiment contained a significantly smaller molepercentage of carbon dioxide than did the non-condensable fluid producedin the pyrolysis experiment.

FIG. 18 depicts water production from Wyoming Anderson Coal based on thepyrolysis experiment and the hydropyrolysis experiment. Curve 592depicts water yield for the hydropyrolysis experiment. Curve 594 depictswater yield for the pyrolysis experiment. Water yield at 448° C. wasabout 90 (gal/ton of coal) for the pyrolysis experiment. Water yield at448° C. was about 94 (gal/ton of coal) for the hydropyrolysisexperiment. Water yield during pyrolysis from about 250° C. to about375° C. was substantially the same from both experiments. Waterproduction become higher for the hydropyrolysis experiment attemperatures above about 375° C.

Data obtained from experiments appears to scale to treatment of in situformations. The pyrolysis experiment and the hydropyrolysis experimentimply that there may be several advantages of introducing hydrogen intoa formation when the formation is at pyrolysis temperatures betweenabout 250° C. and about 450° C. The addition of hydrogen may result in asignificant increase in condensable hydrocarbons produced from theformation as opposed to producing the formation without the introductionof hydrogen into the formation. The addition of hydrogen may also resultin a significant increase in gas yield as compared to a formation thatis treated without the introduction of hydrogen. The addition ofhydrogen to the formation may also result in a significant decrease inthe mole percentage of carbon dioxide that is produced from theformation as compared to a formation that is treated without theintroduction of hydrogen. The introduction of hydrogen into theformation during pyrolysis may allow for the treatment of immature coalformations without producing excessive amounts of carbon dioxide duringpyrolysis production.

TABLE 3 summarizes the experimental results from nitric oxide ionizationspectrometry evaluation (NOISE) analysis of the C5+ fraction takenduring the pyrolysis experiment and the hydropyrolysis experiment atabout 450° C. Phenol yield was about 1.3 (g/kg of coal) for thepyrolysis experiment. Phenol yield was about 3.9 (g/kg of coal) for thehydropyrolysis experiment. Phenol composition in the produced C5+fraction was about 5.2 wt % for the pyrolysis experiment. Phenolcomposition in the produced C5+ fraction was about 4.8 wt % for thehydropyrolysis experiment. Phenolic compounds yield was about 8.7 (g/kgof coal) for the pyrolysis experiment. Phenolic compounds yield wasabout 22.3 (g/kg of coal) for the hydropyrolysis experiment. Phenoliccompounds composition in the produced C5+ fraction was about 34.5 wt %for the pyrolysis experiment. Phenolic compounds composition in theproduced C5+ fraction was about 27.3 wt % for the hydropyrolysisexperiment. While the contents of phenol and phenolic compounds in theproduced C5+ oil fraction decreased slightly for the hydropyrolysisexperiment, about a three fold increase in the yield of total phenol andphenolic compounds was measured when hydrogen was provided to the coalsample. The significant increase in the gram yield of phenolic compoundsper kilogram of coal may be attributed to hydrogenation of depolymerizedcoal fragments during coal hydropyrolysis to produce more condensablehydrocarbon and phenolic compounds and water.

TABLE 3 Regular Hydro- Pyrolysis Pyrolysis Parameter Run Run Phenol (wt%) 5.2 4.8 Total Phenol (g/kg coal) 1.3 3.9 Phenolic compounds (wt %)34.5 27.3 Total Phenolic compounds (g/kg coal) 8.7 22.3

Some hydrocarbon containing formations may contain significant amountsof entrained methane. The methane may be referred to as hydrocarbon bedmethane. For example, a coal bed may contain significant amounts ofentrained methane. If the hydrocarbon formation is a coal formation, themethane may be referred to as coal bed methane. In some types offormations (e.g., coal formations), hydrocarbon bed methane may beproduced from a formation without the need to raise the temperature ofthe formation to pyrolysis temperatures. Hydrocarbon bed methane, ormethane from a different source (e.g., methane from a half cycle processand/or a methane cycle process), may be a raw material for producinghydrogen (H₂). In some embodiments, hydrogen produced from methane maybe introduced into a part of a formation raised to pyrolysistemperatures so that hydropyrolysis occurs in the part. Hydrogen from aseparate source (e.g., from a half cycle process and/or a hydrogen cycleprocess) may supplement the hydrogen obtained from converting methane tohydrogen.

A simulation was run to analyze the ability to use methane conversion toprovide hydrogen for hydropyrolyzing a part of a formation. Thesimulator modeled a coal formation. The formation was the WyomingAnderson formation. Some properties of the formation are presented inTABLE 1). Some of the data input into the simulator included dataobtained from laboratory experiments of hydropyrolysis of coal samples.

The simulator converted a portion of coal bed methane into hydrogenusing a steam reformation process. Steam reformation is an industrialprocess based on the chemical reaction of methane and water to producecarbon monoxide and hydrogen, expressed by EQN. 2.

CH₄+H₂O→CO+3H₂  (2)

The simulator modeled injection of the hydrogen produced from methaneconversion into a heated portion of the Wyoming Anderson coal formation.Injected hydrogen was used for hydropyrolyzing hydrocarbons in theheated portion of the Wyoming Anderson coal formation. Hydropyrolysiswas used to upgrade coal in the heated portion.

TABLE 4 summarizes the amount of hydrogen injected in the heated portionand the amount consumed during the hydropyrolyzation simulation.Approximately 36% of the injected hydrogen was consumed. TABLE 4 showsthe production of oil as a function of injected and consumed hydrogen.TABLE 5 shows how much methane is required to produce the hydrogenrequired to hydropyrolyze the heated portion of the formation. TABLE 6demonstrates how much area of the Wyoming Anderson coal formation thatmust be developed to provide enough methane to convert to hydrogen forhydropyrolysis. TABLE 6 shows that methane from as much as 16 squaremiles of the coal formation must be developed to hydropyrolyze (based onthe amount of hydrogen actually consumed during the hydropyrolysis) 1square mile of the same coal formation. TABLES 4-6 are based on productsproduced from hydropyrolysis at about 400° C.

TABLE 4 Total H₂ oil vol %: (scf/ton (bbl/ton H₂-consumed/ Use raw coal)raw coal) scf-H₂/bbl-oil H₂-injected H₂ injected 2.14E+04 3.91E−01 54673H₂ consumed 7.64E+03 3.91E−01 19545 36

TABLE 5 CH₄ CH₄ CBM Needed Use (scf/ton raw coal) (scf/ac-ft raw coal)(scf/ac-ft coal) H₂ injected 7.1272E+03 7.7526E+11 6.7253E+11 H₂consumed 2.5479E+03 2.7715E+11 1.7441E+11

TABLE 6 Coal Coal Coal Density Coal CBM in- Total Thick Area Area (ton/Mass place CBM (ft) (mi²) (acres) ac-ft) (ton) (scf/ton) (scf) 100 6239680 1700 6.7440E+09 100 6.7440E+11 100 16 10240 1700 1.7404E+09 1001.7404E+11 100 1 640 1700 1.0877E+08 100 1.0877E+10

TABLE 7 Total H₂ oil vol %: (scf/ton (bbl/ton H₂-consumed/ Use raw coal)raw coal) scf-H₂/bbl-oil H₂-injected H₂ injected 2.85E+04 4.99E−01 57060H₂ consumed 1.15E+04 4.99E−01 23119 41

TABLE 8 CH₄ CH₄ CBM Needed Use (scf/ton raw coal) (scf/ac-ft raw coal)(scf/ac-ft coal) H₂ injected 9.4978E+03 1.0331E+12 8.3281E+11 H₂consumed 3.8482E+03 4.1859E+11 2.1828E+11

TABLE 9 Coal Coal Coal Density Coal CBM in- Total Thick Area Area (ton/Mass place CBM (ft) (mi²) (acres) ac-ft) (ton) (scf/ton) (scf) 100 7749280 1700 8.3756E+09 100 8.3756E+11 100 21 13440 1700 2.2843E+09 1002.2843E+11 100 1 640 1700 1.0877E+08 100 1.0877E+10

TABLES 7-9 presents information similar to the information presented inTABLES 4-6, however, data from TABLES 7-9 are based on products producedfrom hydropyrolysis at about 448° C. Similar results were obtained at400° C. and at 448° C.; however, at 448° C. more hydrogen was consumedper unit of oil produced.

FIG. 19 depicts hydrogen consumption rates per ton of raw coal in aportion of the Wyoming Anderson Coal formation for a constant rate ofhydrogen injection in the formation. FIG. 19 depicts hydrogenconsumption and injection rates over a range of temperatures. The rangeof temperatures depicted in FIG. 19 is an example of a pyrolysistemperature range for a coal formation. Curve 596 depicts asubstantially constant hydrogen injection rate of about 270 scf/day/tonraw coal over the depicted temperature range. Curve 598 depicts avariable consumption rate of hydrogen when hydrogen is injected at aconstant rate. Curve 598 shows a peak consumption rate of hydrogen ofabout 158 scf/day/ton raw coal at about 392° C. Curve 600 depicts theratio of hydrogen consumed and hydrogen injected per day. Curve 600appears to show that hydrogen consumption is greatest around atemperature of about 392° C. Curve 602 depicts the hydrogen consumptionrate per hydrogen injected rate per day as a percentage.

FIG. 20 depicts hydrogen consumption rates per ton of remaining coal ina portion of the Wyoming Anderson Coal formation for a variable rate ofhydrogen injection in the formation. FIG. 20 depicts hydrogenconsumption and injection rates over a range of temperatures. Curve 604depicts a hydrogen injection rate per ton of remaining coal. Curve 606plots a rate of consumption of hydrogen during treatment of the portionof the coal formation. Curve 608 plots hydrogen consumption rates perhydrogen injection rates per day for the portion of the coal formation.Curve 610 plots consumption rate per hydrogen injected rate per day as apercentage.

Computer simulations have demonstrated that carbon dioxide may besequestered in both a deep coal formation and a post treatment coalformation. The Comet2™ Simulator (Advanced Resources International,Houston, Tex.) determined the amount of carbon dioxide that could besequestered in a San Juan Basin type deep coal formation and a posttreatment coal formation. The simulator also determined the amount ofmethane produced from the San Juan Basin type deep coal formation due tocarbon dioxide injection. The model employed for both the deep coalformation and the post treatment coal formation was a 1.3 km² area, witha repeating 5 spot well pattern. The 5 spot well pattern included fourinjection wells arranged in a square and one production well at thecenter of the square. The properties of the San Juan Basin and the posttreatment coal formations are shown in TABLE 10. Additional details ofsimulations of carbon dioxide sequestration in deep coal formations andcomparisons with field test results may be found in Pilot TestDemonstrates How Carbon Dioxide Enhances Coal Bed Methane Recovery,Lanny Schoeling and Michael McGovern, Petroleum Technology Digest,September 2000, p. 14-15.

TABLE 10 Deep Coal Post treatment coal Formation formation (Post (SanJuan Basin) pyrolysis process) Coal Thickness (m) 9 9 Coal Depth (m) 990460 Initial Pressure (bars abs.) 114 2 Initial Temperature 25° C. 25° C.Permeability (md) 5.5 (horiz.), 10,000 (horiz.), 0 (vertical) 0(vertical) Cleat porosity 0.2% 40%

The simulation model accounts for the matrix and dual porosity nature ofcoal and post treatment coal. For example, coal and post treatment coalare composed of matrix blocks. The spaces between the blocks are called“cleats.” Cleat porosity is a measure of available space for flow offluids in the formation. The relative permeabilities of gases and waterwithin the cleats required for the simulation were derived from fielddata from the San Juan coal. The same values for relative permeabilitieswere used in the post treatment coal formation simulations. Carbondioxide and methane were assumed to have the same relative permeability.

The cleat system of the deep coal formation was modeled as initiallysaturated with water. Relative permeability data for carbon dioxide andwater demonstrate that high water saturation inhibits absorption ofcarbon dioxide within cleats. Therefore, water is removed from theformation before injecting carbon dioxide into the formation.

In addition, the gases within the cleats may adsorb in the coal matrix.The matrix porosity is a measure of the space available for fluids toadsorb in the matrix. The matrix porosity and surface area were takeninto account with experimental mass transfer and isotherm adsorptiondata for coal and post treatment coal. Therefore, it was not necessaryto specify a value of the matrix porosity and surface area in the model.The pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) properties and viscosity requiredfor the model were taken from literature data for the pure componentgases.

The preferential adsorption of carbon dioxide over methane on posttreatment coal was incorporated into the model based on experimentaladsorption data. For example, carbon dioxide may have a significantlyhigher cumulative adsorption than methane over an entire range ofpressures at a specified temperature. Once the carbon dioxide enters inthe cleat system, methane diffuses out of and desorbs off the matrix.Similarly, carbon dioxide diffuses into and adsorbs onto the matrix. Inaddition, carbon dioxide may have a higher cumulative adsorption on apyrolyzed coal sample than an unpyrolyzed coal sample.

The simulation modeled a sequestration process over a time period ofabout 3700 days for the deep coal formation model. Removal of the waterin the coal formation was simulated by production from five wells. Theproduction rate of water was about 40 m³/day for about the first 370days. The production rate of water decreased significantly after thefirst 370 days. It continued to decrease through the remainder of thesimulation run to about zero at the end. Carbon dioxide injection wasstarted at approximately 370 days at a flow rate of about 113,000standard (in this context “standard” means 1 atmosphere pressure and15.5° C.) m³/day. The injection rate of carbon dioxide was doubled toabout 226,000 standard m³/day at approximately 1440 days. The injectionrate remained at about 226,000 standard m³/day until the end of thesimulation run.

FIG. 21 illustrates the pressure at the wellhead of the injection wellsas a function of time during the simulation. The pressure decreased fromabout 114 bars absolute to about 19 bars absolute over the first 370days. The decrease in the pressure was due to removal of water from thecoal formation. Pressure then started to increase substantially ascarbon dioxide injection started at 370 days. The pressure reached amaximum of about 98 bars absolute. The pressure then began to graduallydecrease after 480 days. At about 1440 days, the pressure increasedagain to about 98 bars absolute due to the increase in the carbondioxide injection rate. The pressure gradually increased until about3640 days. The pressure jumped at about 3640 days because the productionwell was closed off.

FIG. 22 illustrates the production rate of carbon dioxide 612 andmethane 614 as a function of time in the simulation. FIG. 22 shows thatcarbon dioxide was produced at a rate between about 0-10,000 m³/dayduring approximately the first 2400 days. The production rate of carbondioxide was significantly below the injection rate. Therefore, thesimulation predicts that most of the injected carbon dioxide is beingsequestered in the coal formation. However, at about 2400 days, theproduction rate of carbon dioxide started to rise significantly due toonset of saturation of the coal formation.

In addition, FIG. 22 shows that methane was desorbing as carbon dioxidewas adsorbing in the coal formation. Between about 370-2400 days, theproduction rate of methane 614 increased from about 60,000 to about115,000 standard m³/day. The increase in the methane production ratebetween about 1440-2400 days was caused by the increase in carbondioxide injection rate at about 1440 days. The production rate ofmethane started to decrease after about 2400 days. This was due to thesaturation of the coal formation. The simulation predicted a 50%breakthrough at about 2700 days. “Breakthrough” is defined as the ratioof the flow rate of carbon dioxide to the total flow rate of the totalproduced gas times 100%. In addition, the simulation predicted about a90% breakthrough at about 3600 days.

FIG. 23 illustrates cumulative methane produced 615 and the cumulativenet carbon dioxide injected 616 as a function of time during thesimulation. The cumulative net carbon dioxide injected is the totalcarbon dioxide produced subtracted from the total carbon dioxideinjected. FIG. 23 shows that by the end of the simulated injection,about twice as much carbon dioxide was stored as methane produced. Inaddition, the methane production was about 0.24 billion standard m³ at50% carbon dioxide breakthrough. In addition, the carbon dioxidesequestration was about 0.39 billion standard m³ at 50% carbon dioxidebreakthrough. The methane production was about 0.26 billion standard m³at 90% carbon dioxide breakthrough. In addition, the carbon dioxidesequestration was about 0.46 billion standard m³ at 90% carbon dioxidebreakthrough.

TABLE 10 shows that the permeability and porosity of the simulation inthe post treatment coal formation were both significantly higher than inthe deep coal formation prior to treatment. In addition, the initialpressure was much lower. The depth of the post treatment coal formationwas shallower than the deep coal bed methane formation. The samerelative permeability data and PVT data used for the deep coal formationwere used for the coal formation simulation. The initial watersaturation for the post treatment coal formation was set at 70%. Waterwas present because it is used to cool the hot spent coal formation to25° C. The amount of methane initially stored in the post treatment coalis very low.

The simulation modeled a sequestration process over a time period ofabout 3800 days for the post treatment coal formation model. Thesimulation modeled removal of water from the post treatment coalformation with production from five wells. During about the first 200days, the production rate of water was about 680,000 standard m³/day.From about 200-3300 days, the water production rate was between about210,000 to about 480,000 standard m³/day. Production rate of water wasnegligible after about 3300 days. Carbon dioxide injection was startedat approximately 370 days at a flow rate of about 113,000 standardm³/day. The injection rate of carbon dioxide was increased to about226,000 standard m³/day at approximately 1440 days. The injection rateremained at 226,000 standard m³/day until the end of the simulatedinjection.

FIG. 24 illustrates the pressure at the wellhead of the injection wellsas a function of time during the simulation of the post treatment coalformation model. The pressure was relatively constant up to about 370days. The pressure increased through most of the rest of the simulationrun up to about 36 bars absolute. The pressure rose steeply starting atabout 3300 days because the production well was closed off.

FIG. 25 illustrates the production rate of carbon dioxide as a functionof time in the simulation of the post treatment coal formation model.FIG. 25 shows that the production rate of carbon dioxide was almostnegligible during approximately the first 2200 days. Therefore, thesimulation predicts that nearly all of the injected carbon dioxide isbeing sequestered in the post treatment coal formation. However, atabout 2240 days, the produced carbon dioxide began to increase. Theproduction rate of carbon dioxide started to rise significantly due toonset of saturation of the post treatment coal formation.

FIG. 26 illustrates cumulative net carbon dioxide injected as a functionof time during the simulation in the post treatment coal formationmodel. The cumulative net carbon dioxide injected is the total carbondioxide produced subtracted from the total carbon dioxide injected. FIG.26 shows that the simulation predicts a potential net sequestration ofcarbon dioxide of 0.56 Bm³. This value is greater than the value of 0.46Bm³ at 90% carbon dioxide breakthrough in the deep coal formation.However, comparison of FIG. 21 with FIG. 24 shows that sequestrationoccurs at much lower pressures in the post treatment coal formationmodel. Therefore, less compression energy was required for sequestrationin the post treatment coal formation.

The simulations show that large amounts of carbon dioxide may besequestered in both deep coal formations and in post treatment coalformations that have been cooled. Carbon dioxide may be sequestered inthe post treatment coal formation, in coal formations that have not beenpyrolyzed, and/or in both types of formations.

In some embodiments, carbon dioxide may be sequestered in coalformations that have not undergone in situ treatment processes. In someembodiments, carbon dioxide may be stored in coal formations from whichmethane has been at least partly extracted and/or displaced. Carbondioxide may be stored in coal formations where methane has beenextracted prior to addition of carbon dioxide. In some embodiments,carbon dioxide may be employed to displace methane in coal formations.In some embodiments, carbon dioxide may be stored in formations thathave been subjected to in situ treatment processes. Carbon dioxide attemperatures between 25° C. and 100° C. is more strongly adsorbed thanmethane at 25° C. in the pyrolyzed coal. A carbon dioxide stream passedthrough post treatment coal tends to displace methane from the posttreatment coal.

Although an in situ treatment process is not necessary to prepare aportion of a formation for receiving carbon dioxide, storing carbondioxide in a formation that has been subjected to an in situ treatmentprocess may offer several advantages. A portion of a formation that hasundergone an in situ process may have a high permeability as compared toa formation that has not been subjected to an in situ process. The highpermeability may promote introduction of carbon dioxide into the portionof the formation. The permeability of the portion of the formation maybe substantially uniform. The substantially uniform permeability mayallow for introduction of carbon dioxide throughout the entire volume ofthe portion in which the carbon dioxide is to be stored. A portion of aformation that has been subjected to an in situ process may have carbonwith little or no material sorbed on the carbon. The available carbonmay accept carbon dioxide without the carbon dioxide having to displaceor desorb other compounds from the available carbon.

Methane is often used as an energy source. Large deposits of methaneexist as methane that is sorbed on coal. Methane sorbed on coal is oftenreferred to as coal bed methane. Producing methane from some coal bedmethane resources has been technically unfeasible and/or economicallyunfeasible. A common problem in producing coal bed methane is managingwater during production of the methane. Formations with high water flowrates and/or formations containing large amounts of water (e.g., largeaquifers) may make dewatering the formation or a portion of theformation extremely difficult using conventional means (e.g., dewateringwells). In an embodiment, a barrier may be formed to isolate a portionof a formation. The barrier may be a perimeter barrier enclosing theportion of the formation. The barrier may define a volume of theformation referred to as a treatment area.

Formation fluid that includes phenolic compounds may be separated toproduce a phenolic compounds stream and a condensate stream. Removingphenolic compounds from formation fluid may reduce a cost ofhydrotreating the formation fluid by reducing hydrogen consumption(e.g., hydrogen consumed in the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen toproduce water) in hydrotreating units and/or reactors, as well asreducing a volume of fluids being hydrotreated.

In some embodiments, a phenolic compounds stream may be furtherseparated into various streams by generally known methods (e.g.,distillation). For example, a phenolic compounds stream may be separatedinto a phenol stream, a cresol compounds stream, a xylenol compoundsstream, a resorcinol compounds stream and/or any mixture thereof “Cresolcompounds,” “xylenol compounds,” and/or “resorcinol compounds,” as usedherein, refer to more than one isomeric structure of the phenoliccompound. For example, cresol compounds may include ortho-cresol,para-cresol, meta-cresol or mixtures thereof. For example, xylenolcompounds may include ortho-xylenol, meta-xylenol, para-xylenol ormixtures thereof. For example, resorcinol compounds may include5-methylresorcinol, 2,5-dimethylresorcinol, 4,5-dimethylrescorcinol,and/or mixtures thereof. Phenolic compounds isolated from a formationfluid may be used in a variety of commercial applications. For example,phenolic compounds may be used in the manufacture of UV lightstabilizers, color stabilizers, alkyl phenol resins, rubber softeners,bitumen mastics, wood impregnation materials, biocides, wood treatingcompounds, flame retardant additives, epoxy resins, tire resins,agricultural chemical additives, antioxidants, dyes, explosive primers,and polyurethane chain extenders.

In certain in situ conversion process embodiments, fluid produced from aformation (e.g., from oil shale) may include nitrogen-containingcompounds. Formation fluid produced from the formation may contain lessthan 5 wt % nitrogen-containing compounds (when calculated on anelemental basis). In some embodiments, less than 3 wt % of a producedformation fluid may be nitrogen-containing compounds. In otherembodiments, less than 1 wt % of the produced formation fluid may benitrogen-containing compounds. Nitrogen-containing compounds mayinclude, but are not limited to, substituted and unsubstituted cyclicnitrogen-containing compounds. Examples of substitutednitrogen-containing compounds include alkyl-substituted pyridines,alkyl-substituted quinolines, and/or alkyl-substituted indoles. Examplesof unsubstituted nitrogen-containing compounds include pyridines,picolines, quinolines, acridines, pyrroles, and/or indoles. In someinstances, certain nitrogen-containing compounds (e.g., pyridines,picolines, quinolines, acridines) may be valuable and therefore justifyseparation of the nitrogen-containing compounds from the producedformation fluid.

In certain embodiments, separation of the nitrogen-containing compoundsfrom the produced formation fluid may produce extract oil that is richin nitrogen-containing compounds and a raffinate that is rich inhydrocarbons. The hydrocarbons may be further processed to providehydrocarbon compounds with economic value (e.g., ethylene, propylene,jet fuel, diesel fuel, and/or naphtha). Extract oil may includesubstituted and unsubstituted nitrogen-containing compounds. Conversionof substituted nitrogen-containing compounds in extract oil tounsubstituted nitrogen-containing compounds may increase the economicvalue of the extract oil. For example, alkyl substitutednitrogen-containing compounds may be dealkylated to form unsubstitutednitrogen-containing compounds. Alkyl substituted nitrogen-containingcompounds (e.g., multi-ring compounds) may be oxidized to producesingle-ring nitrogen-containing compounds. Alkyl substitutednitrogen-containing compounds may undergo dealkylation followed byoxidation to produce unsubstituted nitrogen-containing compounds. Theability to further process the nitrogen-containing compounds information fluid and/or extract oil may increase the economic value ofthe formation fluid and/or extract oil. Separated nitrogen-containingcompounds may be utilized as corrosion inhibitors, as asphalt extenders,as solvents, as biocides, and/or in the production of resins, rubberaccelerators, insecticides, water-proofing agents, and/orpharmaceuticals.

In some embodiments, formation fluid may be provided to a nitrogenrecovery unit directly after production from a formation. FIG. 27depicts surface treatment units used to separate nitrogen-containingcompounds from formation fluid. Formation fluid may include hydrocarbonsof an average carbon number less than 30 and nitrogen-containingcompounds. In certain embodiments, formation fluid may includehydrocarbons of an average carbon number less than 20 andnitrogen-containing compounds. Formation fluid 617 may enter nitrogenrecovery unit 618 via conduit 620. Nitrogen recovery unit 618 mayinclude, but is not limited to, extraction units, distillation units,dealkylation units, oxidation units and/or combination thereof.

In certain embodiments, at least a portion of the formation fluid may beacid washed with an organic and/or an inorganic acid in nitrogenrecovery unit 618 to produce at least two streams. The streams may be araffinate stream and an extract oil stream. Organic acids used for acidwashing may include, but are not limited to, formic acid, acetic acid,1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone, and/or halogen substituted organic acids(e.g., trifluoroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid). Inorganic acids usedfor acid washing may include, but are not limited to, hydrochloric acid,sulfuric acid, or phosphoric acid. In some embodiments, sulfuric acidused in an extraction process may be produced from hydrogen sulfide gasproduced during an in situ thermal conversion process of a hydrocarboncontaining formation. Contact of acid with at least a portion of theformation fluid may be performed using agitation, cocurrent flow,crosscurrent flow, countercurrent flow, and/or any combination thereof.A contact temperature of the formation fluid with the acid may bemaintained in a range from about 25° C. to about 50° C.

In some embodiments, a raffinate stream may enter purification unit 622via conduit 624. A nitrogen concentration in the raffinate stream may beless than 5000 ppm by weight. In some embodiments, a nitrogenconcentration in the raffinate stream may be less than 1000 ppm byweight. A raffinate stream may include hydrocarbons of a carbon numberof less than 30. In other embodiments, a raffinate stream may includehydrocarbons of a carbon number less than 20. Methods of purification ofa raffinate stream may include steam cracking, distillation, absorption,deabsorption, hydrotreating, and/or combinations thereof. Steam crackingof a raffinate stream may produce a hydrocarbon product stream. Thehydrocarbon product stream may include hydrocarbons of an average carbonnumber ranging from 2 to 10. In some embodiments, an average carbonnumber of the components in a hydrocarbon product stream may range from2 to 4 (e.g., ethylene, propylene, butylene). Low carbon numberhydrocarbons (e.g., carbon number less than 4) may have increasedeconomic value. The hydrocarbon product stream may exit purificationunit 622 via conduit 626 and be transported to storage units, soldcommercially, and/or transported to other processing units.

In certain embodiments, an extract oil stream may includenitrogen-containing compounds and spent inorganic acid. Neutralizationof the spent inorganic acid in the extract oil stream may be performedby contacting the extract oil stream with a base (e.g., NaHCO₃). In someembodiments, a source of a neutralization base may be nahcolite producedfrom hot water recovery of nahcolite that is near oil shale formations.At least a portion of the neutralized extract oil stream may beseparated into a nitrogen rich stream and a spent water stream.

In some embodiments, an extract oil stream may includenitrogen-containing compounds and spent organic acid. At least a portionof the extract oil may be separated into a nitrogen rich stream and aspent organic acid stream using generally known methods (e.g.,distillation). In some embodiments, at least a portion of an organicacid stream separated from the extract oil stream may be recycled to anitrogen recovery unit.

In some embodiments, at least a portion of the nitrogen rich stream maybe sent directly to various processing units (e.g., distillation units,dealkylation units, and/or oxidation units). For example, a nitrogenrich stream may be sent to a distillation unit. In a distillation unit,pyridine, picolines, and/or other low molecular weightnitrogen-containing compounds may be separated from the nitrogen richstream. In another example, a nitrogen rich stream may be sent directlyto an oxidation unit. In the oxidation unit, nitrogen-containingcompounds may be oxidized to produce carboxylated pyridine derivatives.

In certain embodiments, a nitrogen rich stream may include substitutednitrogen-containing compounds (e.g., alkyl-substituted pyridines,alkyl-substituted quinolines, alkyl-substituted acridines). Dealkylationof the alkyl-substituted nitrogen-containing compounds to unsubstitutednitrogen-containing compounds (e.g., pyridine, quinoline, and/oracridine) may increase the economic value of extract oil. A nitrogenrich stream may exit nitrogen recovery unit 618 and enter dealkylationunit 628 via conduit 630. In dealkylation unit 628, at least a portionof substituted nitrogen-containing compounds in the nitrogen rich streammay be dealkylated to produce unsubstituted nitrogen-containingcompounds. Dealkylation of substituted nitrogen-containing compounds indealkylation unit 628 may be performed under a variety of conditions(e.g., catalytic dealkylation, thermal dealkylation, or base catalyzeddealkylation) to produce a crude product stream. In some embodiments,dealkylation of substituted nitrogen-containing compounds may beperformed in the presence of molecular hydrogen. Dealkylation in thepresence of molecular hydrogen may be referred to as“hydro-dealkylation.” In certain embodiments, substitutednitrogen-containing compounds may be dealkylated in the presence ofmolecular hydrogen and steam. Dealkylation in the presence of steam andhydrogen may be referred to as “steam hydro-dealkylation.” In someembodiments, a source of hydrogen for dealkylation of substitutednitrogen-containing compounds may be hydrogen gas produced from an insitu thermal conversion process. In other embodiments, hydrogen may beobtained from other processing units (e.g., a reformer unit, an olefincracker unit, etc.).

Any catalyst suitable for hydro-dealkylation and/or steamhydro-dealkylation of substituted nitrogen-containing compounds may beused in dealkylation unit 628. Metals incorporated in a dealkylationcatalyst may be metals that promote dealkylation of substitutednitrogen-containing compounds without adsorbing the nitrogen-containingcompounds. The metals incorporated in a dealkylation catalyst may beresistant to hydrogen sulfide. The metals may include metals of a zerooxidation state and/or higher oxidation states (e.g., metal oxides).Dealkylation catalysts may include metals from Group VIB, Group VIII, orGroup IB of the Periodic Table. Examples of Group VIB metals includechromium, magnesium, molybdenum, and tungsten. Examples of Group VIIImetals include cobalt and nickel. An example of a group IB metal iscopper. An example of a metal oxide is nickel oxide. Metals may beincorporated in a non-acidic zeolite type matrix and/or any suitablebinder material.

A dealkylation catalyst may be contacted with a nitrogen rich extractstream in dealkylation unit 628 in the presence of hydrogen under avariety of conditions to produce a crude product stream. Dealkylationtemperatures may range from about 225° C. to about 600° C. In someembodiments, dealkylation temperatures may range from about 500° C. toabout 550° C. Dealkylation unit 628 may be operated at total pressuresless than 100 psig.

A crude product stream produced in dealkylation unit 628 may includeunsubstituted nitrogen-containing compounds stream and unreactedcomponents. Isolation of the unsubstituted nitrogen-containing compoundsfrom the crude product stream may be performed using generally knownmethods (e.g., distillation). For example, distillation of a crudeproduct stream may produce two product streams, a pyridine stream and aquinoline product stream. The crude product stream may exit dealkylationunit 628 and enter purification unit 632 via conduit 634. Purificationof the product stream may produce at least one or more streams includingan unsubstituted single-ring nitrogen-containing compounds stream (e.g.,pyridines), an unsubstituted multi-ring nitrogen-containing compoundsstream (e.g., quinolines and/or acridines), and an unreacted componentsstream. In some embodiments, an unreacted components stream may berecycled to dealkylation unit 628 via conduit 636. Substituted andunsubstituted nitrogen-containing compounds may exit purification unit632 via conduit 638 and be transported to storage units, soldcommercially, and/or sent to other processing units.

In certain embodiments, an unsubstituted multi-ring nitrogen-containingcompounds stream may be sent to other processing units (e.g., anoxidation unit) for further processing. For example, oxidation ofquinoline may result in ring opening of the non-nitrogen-containing ringto form carboxylated pyridine (e.g., niacin). Subsequent decarboxylationof the carboxylated pyridine may be performed to produce pyridine. Inother embodiments, carboxylated pyridine may be sold commercially and/orprocessed further to make commercially viable products. For example,niacin may be reacted with ammonia to produce niacinamide, acommercially available vitamin supplement. In certain embodiments,ammonia used in production of niacinamide may be produced from an insitu thermal conversion process.

In certain embodiments, an in situ thermal conversion process in ahydrocarbon containing formation may be controlled to increaseproduction of nitrogen-containing compounds containing alkyl branches ofa minimum size and/or with a minimum number of alkyl substituents.Minimizing the size of an alkyl branch or and/or a number of alkylsubstituents in nitrogen-containing compounds may reduce a cost ofprocessing of the nitrogen-containing compounds and/or increase thevalue of the produced fluid.

In some embodiments, a hydrocarbon containing formation (e.g., an oilshale matrix) may contain sites that are basic in nature. The basicsites may promote (catalyze) dealkylation of nitrogen-containingcompounds. For example, in a section of a formation at or abovepyrolysis temperatures, hydrogen and steam may be present as pyrolysisbyproducts in the formation. As formation fluids contact an oil shalematrix in the presence of the hydrogen and the steam, substitutednitrogen-containing compounds in the formation fluid may be dealkylatedto produce unsubstituted nitrogen-containing compounds (e.g., pyridines,quinolines, and/or acridines). The resulting formation fluid thatincludes unsubstituted nitrogen-containing compounds may be producedfrom the formation and sent to recovery units.

In an embodiment, a method for treating a hydrocarbon containingformation in situ that contains nitrogen-containing compounds in situmay include providing a dealkylation catalyst to a section of theformation under certain conditions. For example, the dealkylationcatalyst may be added through a heater well or production well locatedin or proximate a section of the formation at pyrolysis temperatures.Hydrogen and steam may be present as pyrolysis byproducts in a sectionof the formation. As formation fluid contacts the dealkylation catalyst,in the presence of hydrogen and steam, dealkylation of substitutednitrogen-containing compounds in the formation fluid may occur toproduce formation fluid with an increased concentration of unsubstitutednitrogen-containing compounds. The resulting formation fluid containingunsubstituted nitrogen-containing compounds may be produced from theformation and sent to recovery units.

Rotating magnet ranging may be used to monitor the distance betweenwellbores. Vector Magnetics LLC (Ithaca, N.Y.) uses one example of arotating magnet ranging system. In rotating magnet ranging, a magnetrotates with a drill bit in one wellbore to generate a magnetic field. Amagnetometer in another wellbore is used to sense the magnetic fieldproduced by the rotating magnet. Data from the magnetometer can be usedto measure the coordinates (x, y, and z) of the drill bit in relation tothe magnetometer.

In some embodiments, magnetostatic steering may be used to form openingsadjacent to a first opening. U.S. Pat. No. 5,541,517 issued to Hartmannet al. describes a method for drilling a wellbore relative to a secondwellbore that has magnetized casing portions.

When drilling a wellbore (opening), a magnet or magnets may be insertedinto a first opening to provide a magnetic field used to guide adrilling mechanism that forms an adjacent opening or adjacent openings.The magnetic field may be detected by a 3-axis fluxgate magnetometer inthe opening being drilled. A control system may use information detectedby the magnetometer to determine and implement operation parametersneeded to form an opening that is a selected distance away (e.g.,parallel) from the first opening (within desired tolerances).

Various types of wellbores may be formed using magnetic tracking. Forexample, wellbores formed by magnetic tracking may be used for in situconversion processes (i.e., heat source wellbores, production wellbores,injection wellbores, etc.) for steam assisted gravity drainageprocesses, the formation of perimeter barriers or frozen barriers (i.e.,barrier wells or freeze wells), and/or for soil remediation processes.Magnetic tracking may be used to form wellbores for processes thatrequire relatively small tolerances or variations in distances betweenadjacent wellbores. For example, freeze wells may need to be positionedparallel to each other with relatively little or no variance in parallelalignment to allow for formation of a continuous frozen barrier around atreatment area. In addition, vertical and/or horizontally positionedheater wells and/or production wells may need to be positioned parallelto each other with relatively little or no variance in parallelalignment to allow for substantially uniform heating and/or productionfrom a treatment area in a formation. In an embodiment, a magneticstring may be placed in a vertical well (e.g., a vertical observationwell). The magnetic string in the vertical well may be used to guide thedrilling of a horizontal well such that the horizontal well passes thevertical well at a selected distance relative to the vertical welland/or at a selected depth in the formation.

In an embodiment, analytical equations may be used to determine thespacing between adjacent wellbores using measurements of magnetic fieldstrengths. The magnetic field from a first wellbore may be measured by amagnetometer in a second wellbore. Analysis of the magnetic fieldstrengths using derivations of analytical equations may determine thecoordinates of the second wellbore relative to the first wellbore.

North and south poles may be placed along the z axis with a north poleplaced at the origin and north and south poles placed alternately atconstant separation L/2 out to z=±∞, where z is the location along thez-axis and L is the distance between consecutive north and consecutivesouth poles. Let all the poles be of equal strength P. The magneticpotential at position (r, z) is given by:

$\begin{matrix}{{\Phi \left( {r,z} \right)} = {\frac{P}{4\pi}{\sum\limits_{n = {- \infty}}^{\infty}{\left( {- 1} \right)^{n}{\left\{ {r^{2} + \left( {z - {{nL}/2}} \right)^{2}} \right\}^{{- 1}/2}.}}}}} & (3)\end{matrix}$

The radial and axial components of the magnetic field are given by:

$\begin{matrix}{{B_{r} = {- \frac{\partial\Phi}{\partial r}}}{and}} & (4) \\{B_{z} = {- {\frac{\partial\Phi}{\partial z}.}}} & (5)\end{matrix}$

EQN. 3 can be written in the form:

$\begin{matrix}{{{\Phi \left( {r,z} \right)} = {\frac{P}{2\pi \; L}{f\left( {{2{r/L}},{2{z/L}}} \right)}}}{with}} & (6) \\{{f\left( {\alpha,\beta} \right)} = {\sum\limits_{n = {- \infty}}^{\infty}{\left( {- 1} \right)^{n}{\left\{ {\alpha^{2} + \left( {\beta - n} \right)^{2}} \right\}^{{- 1}/2}.}}}} & (7)\end{matrix}$

For values of α and β in the ranges αε[0,∞], βε[−∞, ∞], replacing n by−n in EQN. 7 yields the result:

f(α,−β)=f(α,β)  (8)

Therefore only positive β may be used to evaluate f accurately.Furthermore:

f(α,m+β)=(−1)^(m) f(α,β), m=0,±1, . . .   (9)

and f(α,1−β)=−f(α,β).  (10)

EQNS. 9 and 10 suggest the limit of βε[0, ½]. The summation on theright-hand side of EQN. 7 converges to a finite answer for all α and βexcept when α=0 and β is an integer. However, unless α is small, itconverges too slowly for practical use in evaluating f(α, β). Thus, α istransformed to obtain a much more rapidly convergent expression. Thetransformation:

$\begin{matrix}{{\left\{ {\alpha^{2} + \left( {\beta - n} \right)^{2}} \right\}^{{- 1}/2} = {\frac{2}{\pi}{\int_{0}^{\infty}\ {{k\left( {k^{2} + \alpha^{2} + \left( {\beta - n} \right)^{2}} \right\}}^{- 1}}}}},} & (11)\end{matrix}$

can be used.

Substituting EQN. 11 into EQN. 10 and interchanging the summation andintegration results in:

$\begin{matrix}{{{f\left( {\alpha,\beta} \right)} = {\int\limits_{0}^{\infty}{{{kg}\left( {k,\alpha,\beta} \right)}}}},{with}} & (12) \\{{g\left( {k,\alpha,\beta} \right)} = {\sum\limits_{n = {- \infty}}^{\infty}{\left( {- 1} \right)^{n}{\left\{ {k^{2} + \alpha^{2} + \left( {\beta - n} \right)^{2}} \right\}^{- 1}.}}}} & (13)\end{matrix}$

Further, it can be shown that g can be expressed in terms of hyperbolicand trigonometric functions. A simple special case is:

$\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}{{g\left( {k,\alpha,0} \right)} = {\sum\limits_{n = {- \infty}}^{\infty}{\left( {- 1} \right)^{n}\left\{ {k^{2} + \alpha^{2} + n^{2}} \right\}^{- 1}}}} \\{= {\frac{n}{\sqrt{k^{2} + \alpha^{2}}{\sinh \left( {\pi \sqrt{k^{2} + a^{2}}} \right)}}.}}\end{matrix} & (14)\end{matrix}$

Substituting EQN. 14 into EQN. 12, making the change of variable k=αu,expanding out the sin h function, and using the fact that:

$\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}{{K_{0}(z)} = {\int_{0}^{\infty}\ {{t}\; {\exp \left( {{- z}\; \cosh \; t} \right)}}}} \\{{= {\int_{0}^{\infty}\ {{{u\left( {1 + u^{2}} \right)}^{{- 1}/2}}\exp \left\{ {- {z\left( {1 + u^{2}} \right)}^{1/2}} \right\}}}},}\end{matrix} & (15)\end{matrix}$

results in:

$\begin{matrix}{{f\left( {\alpha,0} \right)} = {4{\sum\limits_{m = 0}^{\infty}{K_{0}{\left\{ {\left( {{2m} + 1} \right)\; \pi \; \alpha} \right\}.}}}}} & (16)\end{matrix}$

To treat the general case, let:

γ² =k ²+α²  (17)

and use the identity:

$\begin{matrix}{{\sum\limits_{n = {- \infty}}^{8}{\left( {- 1} \right)^{n}\left\{ {\gamma^{2} + \left( {\beta - n} \right)^{2}} \right\}^{- 1}}} = {\frac{1}{2\gamma}{\sum\limits_{n = {- \infty}}^{\infty}{\left( {- 1} \right)^{n}{\left\{ {\frac{\gamma + {\; \beta}}{n^{2} + \left( {\gamma + {\; \beta}} \right)^{2}} + \frac{\gamma - {\; \beta}}{n^{2} + \left( {\gamma - {\; \beta}} \right)^{2}}} \right\}.}}}}} & (18)\end{matrix}$

EQN. 14 therefore may be generalized to:

$\begin{matrix}{{{g\left( {k,\alpha,\beta} \right)} = {\frac{\pi}{2\gamma}\left\{ {\frac{1}{\sinh \left\{ {\pi \left( {\gamma + {\; \beta}} \right)} \right.} + \frac{1}{\sinh \left\{ {\pi \left( {\gamma - {\beta}} \right)} \right.}} \right\}}},} & (19)\end{matrix}$

and expanding out the hyperbolic sines as before results in:

$\begin{matrix}{{f\left( {\alpha,\beta} \right)} = {4{\sum\limits_{m = 0}^{\infty}{K_{0}\left\{ {\left( {{2m} + 1} \right)\pi \; \alpha} \right\} \cos {\left\{ {\left( {{2m} + 1} \right)\pi \; \beta} \right\}.}}}}} & (20)\end{matrix}$

Substituting EQN. 20 back into EQN. 6 then yields:

$\begin{matrix}{{\Phi \left( {r,z} \right)} = {\frac{2P}{\pi \; L}{\sum\limits_{m = 0}^{\infty}{K_{0}\left\{ {\left( {{2m} + 1} \right)2\pi \; {r/L}} \right\} \cos {\left\{ {\left( {{2m} + 1} \right)2\pi \; {z/L}} \right\}.}}}}} & (21)\end{matrix}$

The differentiations in EQNS. 4 and 5 may then be performed to give thefollowing expressions for the field components:

$\begin{matrix}{{B_{r} = {\frac{4P}{L^{2}}{\sum\limits_{m = 0}^{\infty}{\left( {{2m} + 1} \right)K_{1}\left\{ {\left( {{2m} + 1} \right)2\pi \; {r/L}} \right\} \cos \left\{ {\left( {{2m} + 1} \right)2\pi \; {z/L}} \right\}}}}}{and}} & (22) \\{B_{z} = {\frac{4P}{L^{2}}{\sum\limits_{m = 0}^{\infty}{\left( {{2m} + 1} \right)K_{0}\left\{ {\left( {{2m} + 1} \right)2\pi \; {r/L}} \right\} \sin {\left\{ {\left( {{2m} + 1} \right)2\pi \; {z/L}} \right\}.}}}}} & (23)\end{matrix}$

For large arguments, the analytical functions have the followingasymptotic form:

$\begin{matrix}{{K_{0}(z)},{{K_{1}(z)} \sim {\sqrt{\frac{\pi}{2z}}{{\exp \left( {- z} \right)}.}}}} & (24)\end{matrix}$

For sufficiently large r, then, EQNS. 22 and 23 may be approximated by:

$\begin{matrix}{{B_{r} \sim {\frac{2\; P}{L^{2}}\sqrt{\frac{L}{r}}{\exp \left( {{- 2}\pi \; {r/L}} \right)}{\cos \left( {2\pi \; {z/L}} \right)}}}{and}} & (25) \\{B_{z} \sim {\frac{2\; P}{L^{2}}\sqrt{\frac{L}{r}}{\exp \left( {{- 2}\pi \; {r/L}} \right)}{{\sin \left( {2\pi \; {z/L}} \right)}.}}} & (26)\end{matrix}$

Thus, the magnetic field strengths B_(r) and B_(z) may be used toestimate the position of the second wellbore relative to the firstwellbore by solving EQNS. 25 and 26 for r and z. FIG. 28 depictsmagnetic field strength versus radial distance calculated using theabove analytical equations. As shown in FIG. 28, the magnetic fieldstrength drops off exponentially as the radial distance from themagnetic field source increases. The exponential functionality ofmagnetic field strengths, B_(r) and B_(z), with respect to r enablesmore accurate determinations of radial distances. Such improved accuracymay be a significant advantage when attempting to drill wellbores withsubstantially uniform spacings.

The magnets may be moved (e.g., by moving a magnetic string) with themagnetometer sensors stationary and multiple measurements may be takento remove fixed magnetic fields (e.g., Earth's magnetic field, otherwells, other equipment, etc.) from affecting the measurement of therelative position of the wellbores. In an embodiment, two or moremeasurements may be used to eliminate the effects of fixed magneticfields such as the Earth's magnetic field and the fields from othercasings. A first measurement may be taken at a first location. A secondmeasurement may be taken at a second location L/4 from the firstlocation. A third measurement may be taken at a third location L/2 fromthe first location. Because of sinusoidal variations along the z-axis,measurements at L/2 apart may be about 180° out of phase. At least twoof the measurements (e.g., the first and third measurements) may bevectorially subtracted and divided by two to remove/reduce fixedmagnetic field effects. Specifically, when this subtraction is done, thecomponents attributable to fixed magnetic field effects, being constant,are removed. At the same time, the 180° out of phase componentsattributable to the magnets, being equal in strength but differing insign, will add together when the subtraction is performed. Therefore the180° out of phase components, after being subtracted from each other,are divided by two. Removing or reducing fixed magnetic field effects isa significant advantage in that it improves system accuracy.

At least two of the measurements may be used to determine the Earth'smagnetic field strength, B_(E). The Earth's magnetic field strengthalong with measurements of inclination and azimuthal angle may be usedto give a “normal” directional survey. Use of all three measurements maydetermine the azimuthal angle between the wellbores, the radial distancebetween wellbores, and the initial distance along the z-axis of thefirst measurement location.

Simulations may be used to show the effects of spacing, L, on themagnetic field components produced from a wellbore with magnets andmeasured in a neighboring wellbore. FIGS. 29, 30, and 31 show themagnetic field components as a function of hole depth of neighboringobservation wellbores. B_(z) is the magnetic field component parallel tothe lengths of the wellbores, B_(r) is the magnetic field component in aperpendicular direction between the wellbores, and B_(Hsr) is theangular magnetic field component between the wellbores. In FIGS. 29, 30,and 31, B_(Hsr) is zero because there was no angular offset between thetwo wellbores. FIG. 29 shows the magnetic field components with ahorizontal wellbore at 100 m depth and a neighboring observationwellbore at 90 m depth (i.e., 10 m wellbore spacing). The poles had amagnetic field strength of 1500 Gauss with a spacing, L, between thepoles of 10 m. The poles were placed from 0 meters to 250 m along thewellbore with a positive pole at 80 m. FIG. 30 shows the magnetic fieldcomponents with a horizontal wellbore at 100 m depth and a neighboringobservation wellbore at 95 m depth (i.e., 5 m wellbore spacing). TheB_(z) component begins to flatten as the wellbore spacing decreases.FIG. 31 shows the magnetic field components with a horizontal wellboreat 100 m depth and a neighboring observation wellbore at 97.5 m depth(i.e., 2.5 m wellbore spacing). The B_(z) component deviates more fromthe B_(r) component as the spacing between wellbores is furtherdecreased. FIGS. 29, 30, and 31 show that to be able to use theanalytical solution to monitor the magnetic field components, thespacing between poles, L, should typically be less than or about equalto the spacing between wellbores.

Further simulations determined the effect of build-up on the magneticcomponents (with a maximum turning of the wellbore of about 10° forevery 30 m). Two wellbores both followed each other at a constantdistance. The wellbore with the magnets started at a set depth andmagnet location, and built angle (no turning) as the wellbore wasformed. The observation wellbore started at a depth 10 m from thewellbore with the magnets and offset 2 m from the magnet location, andalso built angle but at a slightly faster rate to keep the separationdistance about equal.

FIG. 32 shows the magnetic field components with the wellbore withmagnets built at 4° per every 30 m and the observation wellbore built at4.095° per every 30 m to maintain the well spacing. FIG. 32 shows thatthe sine functions are only slightly skewed. The component maxima are nolonger opposite the pole position (as shown in FIG. 29) because thewellbores are slightly offset and maintained at a constant distance.

FIG. 33 depicts the ratio of B_(r)/B_(Hsr) from FIG. 32. In an idealsituation, the ratio should be 5, since the observation wellbore has aseparation in a perpendicular direction of 10 m from the wellbore withthe magnets and an offset of 2 m (Hsr direction). The excessive pointsare due to the fact that the data for the excessive points are taken atmidpoints between the poles where both B_(r) and B_(Hsr) are zero.

FIG. 34 depicts the ratio of B_(r)/B_(Hsr) with a build-up of 10° perevery 30 m. The distance between wellbores was the same as in FIG. 33.FIG. 34 shows that the accuracy is still good for the high build-uprate. FIGS. 32-34 show that the accuracy of magnetic steering is stillrelatively good for build-up sections of wellbores.

FIG. 35 depicts comparisons of actual calculated magnetic fieldcomponents versus magnetic field components modeled using analyticalequations for two parallel wellbores with L=20 m separation betweenpoles. FIG. 35 depicts the B_(z) component as a function of distancebetween the wellbores where a perfect fit (i.e., the difference betweenmodeling distance and actual distance is set at zero) is set at 7 m byadjusting the pole strengths, P. FIG. 36 depicts the difference betweenthe two curves in FIG. 35. As shown in FIGS. 35 and 36, the variationbetween the modeled and actual distance is relatively small and may bepredictable. FIG. 37 depicts the B_(r) component as a function ofdistance between the wellbores with the fit used for the perfect fit ofB_(z) set at 7 m. FIG. 38 depicts the difference between the two curvesin FIG. 37. FIGS. 35-38 show that the same accuracy exists using B_(z)or B_(r) to determine distance.

FIG. 39 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of amagnetostatic drilling operation to form an opening that is anapproximate desired distance away from (e.g., substantially parallel to)a drilled opening. Opening 640 may be formed in hydrocarbon layer 556.In some embodiments, opening 640 may be formed in any hydrocarboncontaining formation, other types of subsurface formations, or for anysubsurface application (e.g., soil remediation, solution mining,steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD), etc.). Opening 640 may be formedsubstantially horizontally within hydrocarbon layer 556. For example,opening 640 may be formed substantially parallel to a boundary (e.g.,the surface) of hydrocarbon layer 556. Opening 640 may be formed inother orientations within hydrocarbon layer 556 depending on, forexample, a desired use of the opening, formation depth, a formationtype, etc. Opening 640 may include casing 642. In certain embodiments,opening 640 may be an open (or uncased) wellbore. In some embodiments,magnetic string 644 may be inserted into opening 640. Magnetic string644 may be unwound from a reel into opening 640. In an embodiment,magnetic string 644 includes one or more magnet segments 646. In otherembodiments, magnetic string 644 may include one or more movablepermanent longitudinal magnets. A movable permanent longitudinal magnetmay have a north and a south pole. Magnetic string 644 may have alongitudinal axis that is substantially parallel (e.g., within about 5%of parallel) or coaxial with a longitudinal axis of opening 640.

Magnetic strings may be moved (e.g., pushed and/or pulled) through anopening using a variety of methods. In an embodiment, a magnetic stringmay be coupled to a drill string and moved through the opening as thedrill string moves through the opening. Alternatively, magnetic stringsmay be installed using coiled tubing. Some embodiments may includecoupling a magnetic string to a tractor system that moves through theopening. For example, commercially available tractor systems fromWelltec Well Technologies (Denmark) or Schlumberger Technology Co.(Houston, Tex.) may be used. In certain embodiments, magnetic stringsmay be pulled by cable or wireline from either end of an opening. In anembodiment, magnetic strings may be pumped through an opening using airand/or water. For example, a pig may be moved through an opening bypumping air and/or water through the opening and the magnetic string maybe coupled to the pig.

In some embodiments, casing 642 may be a conduit. Casing 642 may be madeof a material that is not significantly influenced by a magnetic field(e.g., non-magnetic alloy such as non-magnetic stainless steel (e.g.,304, 310, 316 stainless steel), reinforced polymer pipe, or brasstubing). The casing may be a conduit of a conductor-in-conduit heater,or it may be perforated liner or casing. If the casing is notsignificantly influenced by a magnetic field, then the magnetic fluxwill not be shielded.

In other embodiments, the casing may be made of a ferromagnetic material(e.g., carbon steel). A ferromagnetic material may have a magneticpermeability greater than about 1. The use of a ferromagnetic materialmay weaken the strength of the magnetic field to be detected by drillingapparatus 648 in adjacent opening 650. For example, carbon steel mayweaken the magnetic field strength outside of the casing (e.g., by afactor of 3 depending on the diameter, wall thickness, and/or magneticpermeability of the casing). Measurements may be made with the magneticstring inside the carbon steel casing (or other magnetically shieldingcasing) at the surface to determine the effective pole strengths of themagnetic string when shielded by the carbon steel casing. In certainembodiments, casing 642 may not be used (e.g., for an open wellbore).Casing 642 may not be magnetized, which allows the Earth's magneticfield to be used for other purposes (e.g., using a 3-axis magnetometer).Measurements of the magnetic field produced by magnetic string 644 inadjacent opening 650 may be used to determine the relative coordinatesof adjacent opening 650 to opening 640.

In some embodiments, drilling apparatus 648 may include a magneticguidance sensor probe. The magnetic guidance sensor probe may contain a3-axis fluxgate magnetometer and a 3-axis inclinometer. The inclinometeris typically used to determine the rotation of the sensor probe relativeto Earth's gravitational field (i.e., the “toolface angle”). A generalmagnetic guidance sensor probe may be obtained from Tensor EnergyProducts (Round Rock, Tex.). The magnetic guidance sensor may be placedinside the drilling string coupled to a drill bit. In certainembodiments, the magnetic guidance sensor probe may be located insidethe drilling string of a river crossing rig.

Magnet segments 646 may be placed within conduit 652. Conduit 652 may bea threaded or seamless coiled tubular. Conduit 652 may be formed bycoupling one or more sections 654. Sections 654 may include non-magneticmaterials such as, but not limited to, stainless steel. In certainembodiments, conduit 652 is formed by coupling several threaded tubularsections. Sections 654 may have any length desired (e.g., the sectionsmay have a standard length for threaded tubulars). Sections 654 may havea length chosen to produce magnetic fields with selected distancesbetween junctions of opposing poles in magnetic string 644. The distancebetween junctions of opposing poles may determine the sensitivity of amagnetic steering method (i.e., the accuracy in determining the distancebetween adjacent wellbores). Typically, the distance between junctionsof opposing poles is chosen to be on the same scale as the distancebetween adjacent wellbores (e.g., the distance between junctions may ina range of about 1 m to about 500 m or, in some cases, in a range ofabout 1 m to about 200 m).

In an embodiment, conduit 652 is a threaded stainless steel tubular(e.g., a Schedule 40, 304 stainless steel tubular with an outsidediameter of about 7.3 cm (2.875 in.) formed from approximately 6 m (20ft.) long sections 654). With approximately 6 m long sections 654, thedistance between opposing poles will be about 6 m. In some embodiments,sections 654 may be coupled as the conduit is formed and/or insertedinto opening 640. Conduit 652 may have a length between about 125 m andabout 175 m. Other lengths of conduit 652 (e.g., less than about 125 mor greater than 175 m) may be used depending on a desired application ofthe magnetic string.

In an embodiment, sections 654 of conduit 652 may include two magnetsegments 646. More or less than two segments may also be used insections 654. Magnet segments 646 may be arranged within sections 654such that adjacent magnet segments have opposing polarities (i.e., thesegments are repelled by each other due to opposing poles (e.g., N-N) atthe junction of the segments), as shown in FIG. 39. In an embodiment,one section 654 includes two magnet segments 646 of opposing polarities.The polarity between adjacent sections 654 may be arranged such that thesections have attracting polarities (i.e., the sections are attracted toeach other due to attracting poles (e.g., S-N) at the junction of thesections), as shown in FIG. 39. Arranging the opposing poles approximatethe center of each section may make assembly of the magnet segmentswithin each section relatively easy. In an embodiment, the approximatecenters of adjacent sections 654 have opposite poles. For example, theapproximate center of one section may have north poles and the adjacentsection (or sections on each end of the one section) may have southpoles as shown in FIG. 39.

Fasteners 656 may be placed at the ends of sections 654 to hold magnetsegments 646 within the sections. Fasteners 656 may include, but are notlimited to, pins, bolts, or screws. Fasteners 656 may be made ofnon-magnetic materials. In some embodiments, ends of sections 654 may beclosed off (e.g., end caps placed on the ends) to enclose magnetsegments 646 within the sections. In certain embodiments, fasteners 656may also be placed at junctions of opposing poles of adjacent magnetsegments 646 to inhibit the adjacent segments from moving apart.

FIG. 40 depicts an embodiment of section 654 with two magnet segments646 with opposing poles. Magnet segments 646 may include one or moremagnets 658 coupled to form a single magnet segment. Magnet segments 646and/or magnets 658 may be positioned in a linear array. Magnets 658 maybe Alnico magnets or other types of magnets (e.g., neodymium iron orsamarium cobalt) with sufficient magnetic strength to produce a magneticfield that can be sensed in a nearby wellbore. Alnico magnets are madeprimarily from alloys of aluminum, nickel and cobalt and may beobtained, for example, from Adams Magnetic Products Co. (Elmhurst,Ill.). Using permanent magnets in magnet segments 646 may reduce theinfrastructure associated with magnetic tracking compared to usinginductive coils or magnetic field producing wires (e.g., there is noneed to provide a current and the infrastructure for providing currentusing permanent magnets). In an embodiment, magnets 658 are Alnicomagnets about 6 cm in diameter and about 15 cm in length. Assembling amagnet segment from several individual magnets increases the strength ofthe magnetic field produced by the magnet segment. Increasing thestrength of the magnetic field(s) produced by magnet segments mayadvantageously increase the maximum distance for sensing the magneticfield(s). In certain embodiments, the pole strength of a magnet segmentmay be between about 100 Gauss and about 2000 Gauss (e.g., about 1500Gauss). In some embodiments, the pole strength of a magnet segment maybe between about 1000 Gauss and about 2000 Gauss. Magnets 658 may becoupled with attracting poles coupled such that magnet segment 646 isformed with a south pole at one end and a north pole at a second end. Inone embodiment, 40 magnets 658 of about 15 cm in length are coupled toform magnet segment 646 of about 6 m in length. Opposing poles of magnetsegments 646 may be aligned proximate the center of section 654 as shownin FIGS. 39 and 40. Magnet segments 646 may be placed within section 654and held within the section with fasteners 656. One or more sections 654may be coupled as shown in FIG. 39, to form a magnetic string. Incertain embodiments, un-magnetized magnet segments 646 may be coupled(e.g., glued) together inside sections 654. Sections 654 may bemagnetized with a magnetizing coil after magnet segments 646 have beenassembled and coupled (e.g., glued) together into the sections.

FIG. 41 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of a portion of magneticstring 644. Magnet segments 646 may be positioned such that adjacentsegments have opposing poles. In some embodiments, force may be appliedto minimize distance 660 between magnet segments 646. Additionalsegments may be added to increase a length of magnetic string 644. Incertain embodiments, magnet segments 646 may be located within sections654, as shown in FIG. 39. Magnetic strings may be coiled afterassembling. Installation of the magnetic string may include uncoilingthe magnetic string. Coiling and uncoiling of the magnetic string mayalso be used to change position of the magnetic string relative to asensor in a nearby wellbore (e.g., drilling apparatus 648 in opening 650as shown in FIG. 39).

Magnetic strings may include multiple south-south and north-northopposing pole junctions. As shown in FIG. 41, the multiple opposing polejunctions may induce a series of magnetic fields 662. Alternating thepolarity of portions within a magnetic string may provide a sinusoidalvariation of the magnetic field along the length of the magnetic string.The magnetic field variations may allow for control of the desiredspacing between drilled wellbores. In certain embodiments, a series ofmagnetic fields 662 may be sensed at greater distances than individualmagnetic fields. Increasing the distance between opposing pole junctionswithin the magnetic string may increase the radial distance at which amagnetometer may detect a magnetic field. In some embodiments, thedistance between opposing pole junctions within the magnetic string maybe varied. For example, more magnets may be used in portions proximateEarth's surface than in portions positioned deeper in the formation.

In certain embodiments, the distance between junctions of opposing polesof the magnetic strings may be increased or decreased when theseparation distance between two wellbores increases or decreases,respectively. Shorter distances between junctions of opposing polesincreases the frequency of variations in the magnetic field, which mayprovide more guidance (i.e., better accuracy) to the drilling operationfor smaller wellbore separation distances. Longer distances betweenjunctions of opposing poles may be used to increase the overall magneticfield strength for larger wellbore separation distances. For example, adistance between junctions of opposing poles of about 6 m may induce amagnetic field sufficient to allow drilling of adjacent wellbores atdistances of less than about 16 m. In certain embodiments, the spacingbetween junctions of opposing poles may be varied between about 3 m andabout 24 m. In some embodiments, the spacing between junctions ofopposing poles may be varied between about 0.6 m and about 60 m. Thespacing between junctions of opposing poles may be varied to adjust thesensitivity of the drilling system (e.g., the allowed tolerance inspacing between adjacent wellbores).

In an embodiment, a magnetic string may be moved forward in a firstopening while forming an adjacent second opening using magnetic trackingof the magnetic string. Moving the magnetic string forward while formingthe adjacent second opening may allow shorter lengths of the magneticstring to be used. Using shorter lengths of magnetic string may be moreeconomically favorable by reducing material costs.

In one embodiment, a junction of opposing poles in the magnetic string(e.g., the junction of opposing poles at the center of the magneticstring) in the first opening may be aligned with the magnetic sensor ona drilling string in the second opening. The second opening may bedrilled forward using magnetic tracking of the magnetic string. Thesecond opening may be drilled forward a distance of about L/2, where Lis the spacing between junctions of opposing poles in the magneticstring. The magnetic string may then be moved forward a distance ofabout L/2. This process may be repeated until the second opening isformed at the desired length. The magnetic sensor may remained alignedwith the center of the magnetic string during the drilling process. Insome embodiments, the forward drilling and movement of the magneticstring may be done in increments of L/4.

In some embodiments, the strength of the magnets used may affect thestrength of the magnetic field induced. In certain embodiments, adistance between junctions of opposing poles of about 6 m may induce amagnetic field sufficient to drill adjacent wellbores at distances ofless than about 6 m. In other embodiments, a distance between junctionsof opposing poles of about 6 m may induce a magnetic field sufficient todrill adjacent wellbores at distances of less than about 10 m.

A length of the magnetic string may be based on an economic balancebetween cost of the string and the cost of having to reposition thestring during drilling. A string length may range from about 20 m toabout 500 m. In an embodiment, a magnetic string may have a length ofabout 50 m. Thus, in some embodiments, the magnetic string may need tobe repositioned if the openings being drilled are longer than the lengthof the string.

In some embodiments, a magnet may be formed by one or more inductivecoils, solenoids, and/or electromagnets. FIG. 42 depicts an embodimentof a magnetic string. Magnetic string 644 may include core 664. Core 664may be formed of ferromagnetic material (e.g., iron). Core 664 may besurrounded by one or more coils 666. Coils 666 may be made of conductivematerial (e.g., copper). Coils 666 may include one continuous coil orseveral coils coupled together. In an embodiment, coils 666 are wound inone direction (e.g., clockwise) for a specific length and then the nextspecific length of coil is wound in a reverse direction (e.g.,counter-clockwise). The specific length of coil wound in one directionmay be equal to L/2, where L is the spacing between opposing poles asdescribed above. Winding sections of coil in different directions mayproduce magnetic fields 668, when an electrical current is provided tocoils 666, that are oriented in opposite directions, thereby producingeffective magnetic poles between the sections of coil. Alternating thedirections of winding may also produce effective magnetic poles that arealternating between effective north poles and effective south polesalong a length of core 664. Coupling section 670 may couple one or moresections of core 664 together. Coupling section 670 may includenon-ferromagnetic material (e.g., fiberglass or polymer). Couplingsection 670 may be used to separate the opposing magnetic poles.

An electrical current may be provided to coils 666 to produce one ormore magnetic fields (e.g., a series of magnetic fields) along a lengthof core 664. The amount of electrical current provided to coils 666 maybe adjusted to alter the strength of the produced magnetic fields. Thestrength of the produced magnetic fields may be altered to adjust forthe desired distance between wellbores (i.e., a stronger magnetic fieldfor larger distances between wellbores, etc.). In certain embodiments, adirect current (DC) may be provided to coils 666 in one direction for aspecified time (e.g., about 5 seconds to about 10 seconds) and in areverse direction for a specified time (e.g., about 5 seconds to about10 seconds). Measurements of the produced magnetic field with electricalcurrent flowing in each direction may be taken. These measurements maybe used to subtract or remove fixed magnetic fields from the measurementof distance between wellbores.

When multiple wellbores are to be drilled around a center wellbore, thecenter wellbore may be drilled and magnetic strings may be placed in thecenter wellbore to guide the drilling of the other wellboressubstantially surrounding the center wellbore. Cumulative errors indrilling may be limited by drilling neighboring wellbores guided by themagnetic string. Additionally, only wellbores using the magnetic stringmay include a nonmagnetic liner, which may be more expensive thantypical liners.

As an example, in a seven spot pattern, a first wellbore may be formedat the center of the well pattern. A magnetic string may be placed inthe first wellbore. The neighboring (or surrounding) six wellbores maybe formed using the magnetic string in the first wellbore for guidance.After the seven spot pattern has been formed, additional wellbores maybe formed by placing the magnetic string in one of the six surroundingwellbores and forming the nearest neighboring wellbores to the wellborewith the magnetic string. The process of forming nearest neighboringwellbores and moving the magnetic string to form successive neighboringwellbores may be repeated until a wellbore pattern has been formed for ahydrocarbon containing formation. Drilling as many nearest neighborwellbores as possible from a single wellbore may reduce the cost andtime associated with moving the magnetic string from wellbore towellbore and/or installing multiple magnetic strings.

In an embodiment, the nearest neighboring wellbores to a previouslyformed wellbore are formed using magnetic steering with a magneticstring placed in the previously formed wellbore. The previously formedwellbore may have been formed by any standard drilling method (e.g.,gyroscope, inclinometer, Earth's field magnetometer, etc.) or bymagnetic steering from another previously formed wellbore. Formingnearest neighbor wellbores with magnetic steering may reduce the overalldeviation between wellbores in a well pattern formed for a hydrocarboncontaining formation. For example, the deviation between wellbores maybe kept below about ±1 m. In some embodiments of formed heaterwellbores, heat may be varied along the lengths of wellbores tocompensate for any variations in spacing between heater wellbores.

FIG. 43 depicts an embodiment of a wellbore with a first opening locatedat a first location on the Earth's surface and a second opening locatedat a second location on the Earth's surface (e.g., “a relativelyu-shaped wellbore”). Wellbore 672 depicted in FIG. 43 may be formed by amultiple step drilling method. First portion 674 may be initially formedin hydrocarbon layer 556 by typical wellbore drilling methods. Firstportion 674 may be substantially L-shaped so that distal end 676 of theportion in hydrocarbon layer 556 is substantially horizontal in thehydrocarbon layer. Magnetic source 678 may be placed at distal end 676of first portion 674.

Magnetic source 678 may be used to guide the drilling of second portion680 so that distal end 682 of the second portion is substantiallyaligned with distal end 676 of first portion 674. Drilling of secondportion 680 may use magnetic steering techniques to align with magneticsource 678. After formation of first portion 674 and second portion 680,expandable conduit 684 may be used to couple the portions together.Expandable conduit 684 may be sealed to casing 686 of first portion 674and casing 688 of second portion 680 so that a continuous wellbore(wellbore 672) with two openings at two locations on the Earth's surfaceis formed. Wellbore 672 may be, for example, substantially u-shaped.

In certain embodiments, first portion 674 and second portion 680 mayhave relatively steep entry angles (as shown in FIG. 43) intohydrocarbon layer 556. The steep entry angles may be relatively cheap todrill. In some embodiments, relatively shallow entry angles may be used.In some embodiments, the horizontal portion of wellbore 672 may bebetween about 100 m and about 300 m below the surface (e.g., about 200 mbelow the surface). The horizontal sections of first portion 674 andsecond portion 680 may each be between about 500 m and about 1500 m inlength (e.g., about 1000 m in length).

In certain embodiments, acoustic waves and their reflections may be usedto determine the approximate location of a wellbore within a hydrocarbonlayer (e.g., a coal layer). In some embodiments, logging while drilling(LWD), seismic while drilling (SWD), and/or measurement while drilling(MWD) techniques may be used to determine a location of a wellbore whilethe wellbore is being drilled.

In an embodiment, an acoustic source may be placed in a wellbore beingformed in a hydrocarbon layer (e.g., the acoustic source may be placedat, near, or behind the drill bit being used to form the wellbore). Thelocation of the acoustic source may be determined relative to one ormore geological discontinuities (e.g., boundaries) of the formation(e.g., relative to the overburden and/or the underburden of thehydrocarbon layer). The approximate location of the acoustic source(i.e., the drilling string being used to form the wellbore) may beassessed while the wellbore is being formed in the formation. Monitoringof the location of the acoustic source, or drill bit, may be used toguide the forming of the wellbore so that the wellbore is formed at adesired distance from, for example, the overburden and/or theunderburden of the formation. For example, if the location of theacoustic source drifts from a desired distance from the overburden orthe underburden, then the forming of the wellbore may be adjusted toplace the acoustic source at a selected distance from a geologicaldiscontinuity. In some embodiments, a wellbore may be formed atapproximately a midpoint in the hydrocarbon layer between the overburdenand the underburden of the formation (i.e., the wellbore may be placedalong a midline between the overburden and the underburden of theformation).

FIG. 44 depicts an embodiment for using acoustic reflections todetermine a location of a wellbore in a formation. Drill bit 690 may beused to form opening 640 in hydrocarbon layer 556. Drill bit 690 may becoupled to drill string 692. Acoustic source 694 may be placed at ornear drill bit 690. Acoustic source 694 may be any source capable ofproducing an acoustic wave in hydrocarbon layer 556 (e.g., acousticsource 694 may be a monopole source or a dipole source that produces anacoustic wave with a frequency between about 2 kHz and about 10 kHz).Acoustic waves 696 produced by acoustic source 694 may be measured byone or more acoustic sensors 698. Acoustic sensors 698 may be placed indrill string 692. In an embodiment, 3 to 10 (e.g., 8) acoustic sensors698 are placed in drill string 692. Acoustic sensors 698 may be spacedbetween about 5 cm and about 30 cm apart (e.g., about 15.2 cm apart).The spacing between acoustic sensors 698 and acoustic source 694 istypically between about 5 meters and about 30 meters (e.g., betweenabout 9 meters and about 15 meters).

In an embodiment, acoustic sensors 698 may include one or morehydrophones (e.g., piezoelectric hydrophones) or other suitable acousticsensing device. Hydrophones may be oriented at 90° intervalssymmetrically around the axis of drill string 692. In certainembodiments, the hydrophones may be oriented such that respectivehydrophones in each acoustic sensor 698 are aligned in similardirections. Drill string 692 may also include a magnetometer, anaccelerometer, an inclinometer, and/or a natural gamma ray detector.Data at each acoustic sensor 698 may be recorded separately using, forexample, computational software for acoustic reflection recording (e.g.,BARS acquisition hardware/software available from SchlumbergerTechnology Co. (Houston, Tex.)). Data may be recorded at acousticsensors 698 at an interval between about every 1 μsec and about every 50μsec (e.g., about every 15 μsec).

Acoustic waves 696 produced by acoustic source 694 may reflect off ofoverburden 560, underburden 562, and/or other unconformities orgeological discontinuities (e.g., fractures). The reflections ofacoustic waves 696 may be measured by acoustic sensors 698. Theintensities of the reflections of acoustic waves 696 may be used toassess or determine an approximate location of acoustic source 694relative to overburden 560 and/or underburden 562. For example, theintensity of a signal from a boundary that is closer to the acousticsource may be somewhat greater than the intensity of a signal from aboundary further away from the acoustic source. In addition, the signalfrom a boundary that is closer to the acoustic source may be detected atan acoustic sensor at an earlier time than the signal from a boundaryfurther away from the acoustic source.

Data acquired from acoustic sensors 698 may be processed to determinethe approximate location of acoustic source 694 in hydrocarbon layer556. In certain embodiments, data from acoustic sensors 698 may beprocessed using a computational system or other suitable system foranalyzing the data. The data from acoustic sensors 698 may be processedby one or more methods to produce suitable results.

In one embodiment, acoustic waves 696 that are reflected from geologicaldiscontinuities (e.g., boundaries of the formation) are detected at twoor more acoustic sensors 698. The reflected acoustic waves may arrive atthe acoustic sensors later than refracted acoustic waves and/or with adifferent moveout across the array of acoustic sensors. The local wavevelocity in the formation may be assessed, or known, from analysis ofthe arrival times of the refracted acoustic waves. Using the local wavevelocity, the distance of a selected reflecting interface (i.e.,geological discontinuity) may be assessed (e.g., computed) by assessingthe appropriate arrival time for the reflection from the selectedreflecting interface when the acoustic source and the acoustic sensorare not separated (i.e., zero offset), multiplying the assessedappropriate arrival time by the local wave velocity, and dividing theproduct by two. The zero offset arrival time may be assessed by applyingnormal moveout corrections for the assessed local wave velocity to therecorded waveforms of the acoustic waves at each acoustic sensor andstacking the corrected waveforms in a common reflection point gather.This process is generally known and commonly used in surface explorationreflection seismology.

The direction from which a particular acoustic wave originates (e.g.,above or below opening 640) may be assessed with a knowledge of theangle of the opening, which may be provided by a wellbore survey, and anestimate of the dip of hydrocarbon layer 556, which may be made by asurface seismic section. If the opening dips with respect to theformation itself, an upcoming wave (i.e., a wave coming from below theopening) may be separated from a downgoing wave (i.e., a wave comingfrom above the opening) by the sign of the apparent velocities of thewaves in a common acoustic sensor panel composed over a substantiallength of the opening. For a formation with a uniform thickness and anopening with a distance from the top and bottom of the formation thatdoes not substantially vary along a length of the opening beingmonitored, polarized detectors may be used to assess the direction fromwhich an acoustic wave arrives at an acoustic sensor.

In certain embodiments, filtering of the data may enhance the quality ofthe data (e.g., removing external noises such as noise from drill bit690). Frequency and/or apparent velocity filtering may be used tosuppress coherent noises in the data collected from acoustic sensors.Coherent noises may include unwanted and intense noise from events suchas earlier refracted arrivals, direct fluid waves, waves that maypropagate in the drill sting or logging tool, and/or Stoneley waves.Data filtering may also include bandpass filtering, f-k dip filtering,wavelet-processing Wiener filtering, and/or wave separation filtering.Filtering may be used to reduce the effects of wellbore wave signalmodes (e.g., compressional headwaves) in common shot, common receiver,and/or common offset modes. In some embodiments, filtering of the datamay include accounting for the velocity of acoustic waves in theformation. The velocity of acoustic waves in the formation may becalculated or assessed by, for example, acoustic well logging and/oracoustic measurements on a core sample from the formation. The data mayalso be processed by binning, normal moveout, and/or stacking (e.g.,prestack migration). In some embodiments, the data may be processed bybinning, normal moveout, and/or stacking followed by a second stackingtechnique (e.g., poststack migration). Prestack migration and poststackmigration may be based on the generalized Radon transform. In certainembodiments, results from processing the data may be displayed and/oranalyzed following any method of processing the data so that the datamay be monitored (e.g., for quality control purposes).

In an embodiment, processed data may be analyzed to provide feedbackcontrol to drill bit 690. Direction of drill bit 690 may be modified oradjusted if the location of acoustic source 694 varies from a desiredspacing relative to geological discontinuities (e.g., overburden 560and/or underburden 562) so that opening 640 may be formed at a desiredlocation (e.g., at a desired spacing between the overburden and theunderburden). For example, drill string 692 may include an inclinometerthat is used to direct the forming (i.e., drilling) of opening 640. Thedirection of the inclinometer may be adjusted to compensate for varianceof the location of acoustic source 694 from the desired location betweenoverburden 560 and/or underburden 562. An advantage of using data fromacoustic sensors 698 while drilling an opening in the formation may bethe real-time monitoring of the location of drill bit 690 and/oradjusting the direction of drilling in real time. In some embodiments,opening 640 formed using acoustic data to control the location of theopening may be used as a guide opening for forming one or moreadditional openings in a formation (e.g., magnetic tracking of opening640 may be used to form one or more additional openings).

In an embodiment, a hydrocarbon containing formation may be pre-surveyedbefore drilling to determine the lithology of the formation and/or theoptimum geometry of acoustic sources and sensors. Pre-surveying theformation may include simulating refraction signals for compressionaland/or shear waves, various reflection mode signals in a wellbore, mudwave signals, Stoneley wave signals (i.e., seam vibration), and otherreflective or refractive wave signals in the formation. In oneembodiment, reflected signals may be determined by three-dimensional(3-D) ray tracing (an example of 3-D ray tracing is available fromSchlumberger Technology Co. (Houston, Tex.)). Simulating these signalsmay provide an estimate of the optimum parameters for operating sensorsand analyzing sensor data. In addition, pre-surveying may includedetermining if acoustic waves can be measured and analyzed efficientlywithin a formation.

FIG. 45 depicts an embodiment for using acoustic reflections andmagnetic tracking to determine a location of a wellbore in a formation.Measurements of acoustic waves 696 may be used to assess an approximatelocation of opening 640 relative to geological discontinuities (e.g.,overburden 560 and/or underburden 562). Magnetic tracking may be used toassess an approximate location of opening 640 relative to one or moreadditional wellbores in the formation. The combination of measurementsof acoustic waves and magnetic tracking in a wellbore (e.g., opening640) may increase the accuracy of placing the wellbore (e.g., theaccuracy of drilling of the wellbore) in hydrocarbon layer 556 or anyother subsurface formation or subsurface layer. Drill bit 690 may beused to form opening 640 in hydrocarbon layer 556. Drill bit 690 may becoupled to a turbine (e.g., a mud turbine) to turn the drill bit. Theturbine may be located at or behind drill bit 690 in drill string 692.Non-magnetic section 700 may be located behind drill bit 690 in drillstring 692. Non-magnetic section 700 may inhibit magnetic fieldsgenerated by drill bit 690 from being conducted along a length of drillstring 692. In an embodiment, non-magnetic section 700 includes Monel®.In certain embodiments, acoustic source 694 may be placed innon-magnetic section 700. In other embodiments, acoustic source 694 maybe placed in sections of drill string 692 behind non-magnetic section700 (e.g., in probe section 702).

In an embodiment, drill string 692 may include probe section 702. Probesection 702 may include inclinometer 704 (e.g., a 3-axis inclinometer)and/or magnetometer 706 (e.g., a 3-axis fluxgate magnetometer.). In anembodiment, magnetometer 706 may be used to determine a location ofopening 640 relative to one or more additional openings in hydrocarbonlayer 556. Inclinometer 704 may be used to assess the orientation and/orcontrol the drilling angle of drill bit 690.

Acoustic sensors 698 may be located in drill string 692 behind probesection 702. In some embodiments, acoustic sensors 698 may be located inprobe section 702. In some embodiments, acoustic sensors 698, probesection 702 (including inclinometer 704 and/or magnetometer 706), andacoustic source 694 may be located at other positions along a length ofdrill string 692.

FIG. 46 depicts signal intensity (I) versus time (t) for raw dataobtained from an acoustic sensor in a formation. The raw data was takenfor a single shot of an acoustic source in a horizontal wellbore in acoal seam. The coal seam had a thickness of about 30 feet (9.1 m). Theacoustic source was separated from eight evenly spaced acoustic sensorsby distances from 15 feet (4.6 m) to 18.5 feet (5.6 m). Four separateplanar piezoelectric hydrophones were included in each acoustic sensor.The four hydrophones were oriented at 90° intervals symmetrically aroundthe axis of the drilling string. The data shown in FIG. 46 is for asingle hydrophone. The drilling string included a magnetometer andaccelerometers, for determining the orientation of the drilling stringand drill bit, and a natural gamma ray detector. The four hydrophones ateach acoustic sensor were recorded separately using BARS acquisitionhardware/software from Schlumberger Technology Co. (Houston, Tex.). Atotal of 32 512-sample traces were recorded at a 15 μsec sampling rateafter firing the source.

The arrival times of P-wave refraction 708 and P-wave reflection 710 areindicated in FIG. 46. P-wave reflection 710 had a later arrival timethan P-wave refraction 708. P-wave reflection 710 was assessed as areflection event because the P-wave reflection arrived with a highervelocity than the refracted P-wave, which has the highest velocitypossible for a direct arrival. Modeling of the P-wave velocity in thecoal derived from P-wave refraction 708 arrival and the geometry of theacoustic devices indicated that the distance from the horizontalwellbore to the reflector producing the P-wave reflection was about 16ft (4.9 m). This result indicated that the wellbore was within ±1 ft(0.3 m) of the center of the coal seam. Magnetic sensing of magneticfields produced by a wireline placed in a second wellbore indicated thatdistance between the wellbores was approximately the desired distance of20 ft (6.1 m).

In some hydrocarbon containing formations (e.g., in Green River oilshale), there may be one or more hydrocarbon layers characterized by asignificantly higher richness than other layers in the formation. Theserich layers tend to be relatively thin (typically about 0.2 m to about0.5 m thick) and may be spaced throughout the formation. The rich layersgenerally have a richness of about 0.150 L/kg or greater. Some richlayers may have a richness greater than about 0.170 L/kg, greater thanabout 0.190 L/kg, or greater then about 0.210 L/kg. Other layers (i.e.,relatively lean layers) of the formation may have a richness of about0.100 L/kg or less and are generally thicker than rich layers. Therichness and locations of layers may be determined, for example, bycoring and subsequent Fischer assay of the core, density or neutronlogging, or other logging methods.

FIG. 47 depicts an embodiment of a heater in an open wellbore of ahydrocarbon containing formation with a rich layer. Opening 640 may belocated in hydrocarbon layer 556. Hydrocarbon layer 556 may include oneor more rich layers 712. Relatively lean layers 558 in hydrocarbon layer556 may have a lower richness than rich layers 712. Heater 714 may beplaced in opening 640. In certain embodiments, opening 640 may be anopen or uncased wellbore.

Rich layers 712 may have a lower initial thermal conductivity than otherlayers of the formation. Typically, rich layers 712 have a thermalconductivity 1.5 times to 3 times lower than the thermal conductivity oflean layers 558. For example, a rich layer may have a thermalconductivity of about 1.5×10⁻³ cal/cm·sec·° C. while a lean layer of theformation may have a thermal conductivity of about 3.5×10⁻³ cal/cm·sec·°C. In addition, rich layers 712 may have a higher thermal expansioncoefficient than lean layers of the formation. For example, a rich layerof 57 gal/ton (0.24 L/kg) oil shale may have a thermal expansioncoefficient of about 2.2×10⁻²%/° C. while a lean layer of the formationof about 13 gal/ton (0.05 L/kg) oil shale may have a thermal expansioncoefficient of about 0.63×10⁻²%/° C.

Because of the lower thermal conductivity in rich layers 712, richlayers may cause “hot spots” on heaters during heating of the formationaround opening 640. The “hot spots” may be generated because heatprovided from the heater in opening 640 does not transfer intohydrocarbon layer 556 as readily as through rich layers 712 due to thelower thermal conductivity of the rich layers. Thus, the heat tends tostay at or near the wall of opening 640 during early stages of heating.

Material that expands from rich layers 712 into the wellbore may besignificantly less stressed than material in the formation. Thermalexpansion and pyrolysis may cause additional fracturing and exfoliationof hydrocarbon material that expands into the wellbore. Thus, afterpyrolysis of expanded material in the wellbore, the expanded materialmay have an even lower thermal conductivity than pyrolyzed material inthe formation. Under low stress, pyrolysis may cause additionalfracturing and/or exfoliation of material, thus causing a decrease inthermal conductivity. The lower thermal conductivity may be caused bythe lower stress placed on pyrolyzed materials that have expanded intothe wellbore (i.e., pyrolyzed material that has expanded into thewellbore is no longer as stressed as the pyrolyzed material would be ifthe pyrolyzed material were still in the formation). This release ofstress tends to lower the thermal conductivity of the expanded,pyrolyzed material.

After the formation of “hot spots” at rich layers 712, hydrocarbons inthe rich layers will tend to expand at a much faster rate than otherlayers of the formation due to increased heat at the wall of thewellbore and the higher thermal expansion coefficient of the richlayers. Expansion of the formation into the wellbore may reduce radiantheat transfer to the formation. The radiant heat transfer may be reducedfor a number of reasons, including, but not limited to, materialcontacting the heater, thus stopping radiant heat transfer; andreduction of wellbore radius which limits the surface area that radiantheat is able to transfer to. Reduction of radiant heat transfer mayresult in higher heater temperature adjacent to areas with reducedradiant heat transfer acceptance capability.

Rich layers 712 may expand at a much faster rate than lean layersbecause of the significantly lower thermal conductivity of rich layersand/or the higher thermal expansion coefficient of the rich layers. Theexpansion may apply significant pressure to a heater when the wellborecloses off against the heater. The wellbore closing off, orsubstantially closing off against the heater may also inhibit flow offluids between layers of the formation. In some embodiments, fluids maybecome trapped in the wellbore because of the closing off or substantialclosing off of the wellbore against the heater.

FIG. 48 depicts an embodiment of heater 714 in opening 640 with expandedrich layer 712. In some embodiments, opening 640 may be closed off bythe expansion of rich layer 712, as shown in FIG. 48, (i.e., an annularspace between the heater and wall of the opening may be closed off byexpanded material). Closing off of the annulus of the opening may trapfluids between expanded rich layers in the opening. The trapping offluids can increase pressures in the opening beyond desirable limits. Insome circumstances, the increased pressure could cause fracturing of theformation or in the heater well that would allow fluid to unexpectedlybe in communication with an opening from the formation. In somecircumstances, the increased pressure may exceed a deformation pressureof the heater. Deformation of the heater may also be caused by theexpansion of material from the rich layers against the heater.Deformation may also be caused by pressure buildup from gases trapped atan interface of expanded material and a heater. The trapped gases mayincrease in pressure due to heating, cracking, and/or pyrolysis.Deformation of the heater may cause the heater to shut down or fail.Thus, the expansion of material in rich layers may need to be reducedand/or deformation of a heater in the opening may need to be inhibitedso that the heater operates properly.

A significant amount of the expansion of rich layers tends to occurduring early stages of heating (e.g., often within the first 15 days or30 days of heating at a heat injection rate of about 820 watts/meter).Typically, a majority of the expansion occurs below about 200° C. in thenear wellbore region. For example, a 0.189 L/kg hydrocarbon containinglayer will expand about 5 cm up to about 200° C. depending on factorssuch as, but not limited to, heating rate, formation stresses, andwellbore diameter. Methods for compensating for the expansion of richlayers of a formation may be focused on in the early stages of an insitu process. The amount of expansion during or after heating of theformation may be estimated or determined before heating of the formationbegins. Thus, allowances may be made to compensate for the thermalexpansion of rich layers and/or lean layers in the formation. The amountof expansion caused by heating of the formation may be estimated basedon factors such as, but not limited to, measured or estimated richnessof layers in the formation, thermal conductivity of layers in theformation, thermal expansion coefficients (e.g., linear thermalexpansion coefficient) of layers in the formation, formation stresses,and expected temperature of layers in the formation.

FIG. 49 depicts simulations (using a reservoir simulator (STARS) and amechanical simulator (ABAQUS)) of wellbore radius change versus time forheating of a 20 gal/ton oil shale (0.084 L/kg oil shale) in an openwellbore for a heat output of 820 watts/meter (plot 716) and a heatoutput of 1150 watts/meter (plot 718). As shown in FIG. 49, the maximumexpansion of a 20 gal/ton oil shale increases from about 0.38 cm toabout 0.48 cm for increased heat output from 820 watts/meter to 1150watts/meter. FIG. 50 depicts calculations of wellbore radius changeversus time for heating of a 50 gal/ton oil shale (0.21 L/kg oil shale)in an open wellbore for a heat output of 820 watts/meter (plot 720) anda heat output of 1150 watts/meter (plot 722). As shown in FIG. 50, themaximum expansion of a 50 gal/ton oil shale increases from about 8.2 cmto about 10 cm for increased heat output from 820 watts/meter to 1150watts/meter. Thus, the expansion of the formation depends on therichness of the formation, or layers of the formation, and the heatoutput to the formation.

In one embodiment, opening 640 may have a larger diameter to inhibitclosing off of the annulus after expansion of rich layers 712. A typicalopening may have a diameter of about 16.5 cm. In certain embodiments,heater 714 may have a diameter of about 7.3 cm. Thus, about 4.6 cm ofexpansion of rich layers 712 will close off the annulus. If the diameterof opening 640 is increased to about 30 cm, then about 11.3 cm ofexpansion would be needed to close off the annulus. The diameter ofopening 640 may be chosen to allow for a certain amount of expansion ofrich layers 712. In some embodiments, a diameter of opening 640 may begreater than about 20 cm, greater than about 30 cm, or greater thanabout 40 cm. Larger openings or wellbores also may increase the amountof heat transferred from the heater to the formation by radiation.Radiative heat transfer may be more efficient for transfer of heatwithin the opening. The amount of expansion expected from rich layers712 may be estimated based on richness of the layers. The diameter ofopening 640 may be selected to allow for the maximum expansion expectedfrom a rich layer so that a minimum space between a heater and theformation is maintained after expansion. Maintaining a minimum spacebetween a heater and the formation may inhibit deformation of the heatercaused by the expansion of material into the opening. In an embodiment,a desired minimum space between a heater and the formation afterexpansion may be at least about 0.25 cm, 0.5 cm, or 1 cm. In someembodiments, a minimum space may be at least about 1.25 cm or at leastabout 1.5 cm, and may range up to about 3 cm, about 4 cm, or about 5 cm.

In some embodiments, opening 640 may be expanded proximate rich layers712, as depicted in FIG. 51, to maintain a minimum space between aheater and the formation after expansion of the rich layers. Opening 640may be expanded proximate rich layers by underreaming of the opening.For example, an eccentric drill bit, an expanding drill bit, orhigh-pressure water jet with abrasive particles may be used to expand anopening proximate rich layers. Opening 640 may be expanded beyond theedges of rich layers 712 so that some material from lean layers 558 isalso removed. Expanding opening 640 with overlap into lean layers 558may further allow for expansion and/or any possible indeterminations inthe depth or size of a rich layer.

In another embodiment, heater 714 may include sections 724 that provideless heat output proximate rich layers 712 than sections 726 thatprovide heat to lean layers 558, as shown in FIG. 51. Section 724 mayprovide less heat output to rich layers 712 so that the rich layers areheated at a lower rate than lean layers 558. Providing less heat to richlayers 712 will reduce the wellbore temperature proximate the richlayers, thus reducing the total expansion of the rich layers. In anembodiment, heat output of sections 724 may be about one half of heatoutput from sections 726. In some embodiments, heat output of sections724 may be less than about three quarters, less than about one half, orless than about one third of heat output of sections 726. Generally, aheating rate of rich layers 712 may be lowered to a heat output thatlimits the expansion of rich layers 712 so that a minimum space betweenheater 714 and rich layers 712 in opening 640 is maintained afterexpansion. Heat output from heater 714 may be controlled to providelower heat output proximate rich layers. In some embodiments, heater 714may be constructed or modified to provide lower heat output proximaterich layers. Examples of such heaters include heaters with temperaturelimiting characteristics, such as Curie temperature heaters, tailoredheaters with less resistive sections proximate rich layers, etc.

In some embodiments, opening 640 may be reopened after expansion of richlayers 712 (e.g., after about 15 to 30 days of heating at 820 Watts/m).Material from rich layers 712 may be allowed to expand into opening 640during heating of the formation with heater 714, as shown in FIG. 48.After expansion of material into opening 640, an annulus of the openingmay be reopened, as shown in FIG. 47. Reopening the annulus of opening640 may include over washing the opening after expansion with a drillbit or any other method used to remove material that has expanded intothe opening.

In certain embodiments, pressure tubes (e.g., capillary pressure tubes)may be coupled to the heater at varying depths to assess if and/or whenmaterial from the formation has expanded and sealed the annulus. In someembodiments, comparisons of the pressures at varying depths may be usedto determine when an opening should be reopened. In certain embodiments,an optical sensor (e.g., a fiber optic cable) may be employed thatdetects stresses from formation material that has expanded against aheater or conduit. Such optical sensors may utilize Brillioun scatteringto simultaneously measure a stress profile and a temperature profile.These measurements may be used to control the heater temperature (e.g.,reduce the heater temperature at or near locations of high stress) toinhibit deformation of the heater or conduit due to stresses fromexpanded formation material.

In certain embodiments, rich layers 712 and/or lean layers 558 may beperforated. Perforating rich layers 712 and/or lean layers 558 may allowexpansion of material within these layers and inhibit or reduceexpansion into opening 640. Small holes may be formed into rich layers712 and/or lean layers 558 using perforation equipment (e.g., bullet orjet perforation). Such holes may be formed in both cased wellbores andopen wellbores. These small holes may have diameters less than about 1cm, less than about 2 cm, or less than about 3 cm. In some embodiments,larger holes may also be formed. These holes may be designed to provide,or allow, space for the formation to expand. The holes may also weakenthe rock matrix of a formation so that if the formation does expand, theformation will exert less force. In some embodiments, the formation maybe fractured instead of using a perforation gun.

In certain embodiments, a liner or casing may be placed in an openwellbore to inhibit collapse of the wellbore during heating of theformation. FIG. 52 depicts an embodiment of a heater in an open wellborewith a liner placed in the opening. Liner 728 may be placed in opening640 in hydrocarbon layer 556. Liner 728 may include first sections 730and second sections 732. First sections 730 may be located proximatelean layers 558. Second sections 732 may be located proximate richlayers 712. Second sections 732 may be thicker than first sections 730.Additionally, second sections 732 may be made of a stronger materialthan first sections 730.

In one embodiment, first sections 730 are carbon steel with a thicknessof about 2 cm and second sections 732 are Haynes® HR-120® (availablefrom Haynes International Inc. (Kokomo, Ind.)) with a thickness of about4 cm. The thicknesses of first sections 730 and second sections 732 maybe varied between about 0.5 cm and about 10 cm. The thicknesses of firstsections 730 and second sections 732 may be selected based upon factorssuch as, but not limited to, a diameter of opening 640, a desiredthermal transfer rate from heater 714 to hydrocarbon layer 556, and/or amechanical strength required to inhibit collapse of liner 728. Othermaterials may also be used for first sections 730 and second sections732. For example, first sections 730 may include, but may not be limitedto, carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminum, etc. Second sections 732may include, but may not be limited to, 304H stainless steel, 316Hstainless steel, 347H stainless steel, Incoloy® alloy 800H or Incoloy®alloy 800HT (both available from Special Metals Co. (New Hartford,N.Y.)), Inconel® 625, etc.

FIG. 53 depicts an embodiment of a heater in an open wellbore with aliner placed in the opening and the formation expanded against theliner. Second sections 732 may inhibit material from rich layers 712from closing off an annulus of opening 640 (between liner 728 and heater714) during heating of the formation. Second sections 732 may have asufficient strength to inhibit or slow down the expansion of materialfrom rich layers 712. One or more openings 734 may be placed in liner728 to allow fluids to flow from the annulus between liner 728 and thewalls of opening 640 into the annulus between the liner and heater 714.Thus, liner 728 may maintain an open annulus between the liner andheater 714 during expansion of rich layers 712 so that fluids cancontinue to flow through the annulus. Maintaining a fluid path inopening 640 may inhibit a buildup of pressure in the opening. Secondsections 732 may also inhibit closing off of the annulus between liner728 and heater 714 so that hot spot formation is inhibited, thusallowing the heater to operate properly.

In some embodiments, conduit 736 may be placed inside opening 640 asshown in FIGS. 52 and 53. Conduit 736 may include one or more openingsfor providing a fluid to opening 640. In an embodiment, steam may beprovided to opening 640. The steam may inhibit coking in openings 734along a length of liner 728 such that openings are not clogged and fluidflow through the openings is maintained. Air may also be suppliedthrough conduit to periodically decoke a plugged opening. In certainembodiments, conduit 736 may be placed inside liner 728. In otherembodiments, conduit 736 may be placed outside liner 728. Conduit 736may also be permanently placed in opening 640 or may be temporarilyplaced in the opening (e.g., the conduit may be spooled and unspooledinto an opening). Conduit 736 may be spooled and unspooled into anopening so that the conduit can be used in more than one opening in aformation.

FIG. 54 depicts maximum radial stress 738, maximum circumferentialstress 740, and hole size 742 after 300 days versus richness forcalculations of heating in an open wellbore. The calculations were donewith a reservoir simulator (STARS) and a mechanical simulator (ABAQUS)for a 16.5 cm wellbore with a 14.0 cm liner placed in the wellbore and aheat output from the heater of 820 watts/meter. As shown in FIG. 54, themaximum radial stress and maximum circumferential stress decrease withrichness. Layers with a richness above about 22.5 gal/ton (0.95 L/kg)may expand to contact the liner. As the richness increases above about32 gal/ton (0.13 L/kg), the maximum stresses begin to somewhat level outat a value of about 270 bars absolute or below. The liner may havesufficient strength to inhibit deformation at the stresses aboverichnesses of about 32 gal/ton. Between about 22.5 gal/ton richness andabout 32 gal/ton richness, the stresses may be significant enough todeform the liner. Thus, the diameter of the wellbore, the diameter ofthe liner, the wall thickness and strength of the liner, the heatoutput, etc. may have to be adjusted so that deformation of the liner isinhibited and an open annulus is maintained in the wellbore for allrichnesses of a formation.

During early periods of heating a hydrocarbon containing formation, theformation may be susceptible to geomechanical motion. Geomechanicalmotion in the formation may cause deformation of existing wellbores in aformation. If significant deformation of wellbores occurs in aformation, equipment (e.g., heaters, conduits, etc.) in the wellboresmay be deformed and/or damaged.

Geomechanical motion is typically caused by heat provided from one ormore heaters placed in a volume in the formation that results in thermalexpansion of the volume. The thermal expansion of a volume may bedefined by the equation:

Δr=r×ΔT×α;  (27)

where r is the radius of the volume (i.e., r is the length of thelongest straight line in a footprint of the volume that has continuousheating, as shown in FIGS. 55 and 56), ΔT is the change in temperature,and α is the linear thermal expansion coefficient.

The amount of geomechanical motion generally increases as more heat isinput into the formation. Geomechanical motion in the formation andwellbore deformation tend to increase as larger volumes of the formationare heated at a particular time. Therefore, if the volume heated at aparticular time is maintained in selected size limits, the amount ofgeomechanical motion and wellbore deformation may be maintained belowacceptable levels. Also, geomechanical motion in a first treatment areamay be limited by heating a second treatment area and a third treatmentarea on opposite sides of the first treatment area. Geomechanical motioncaused by heating the second treatment area may be offset bygeomechanical motion caused by heating the third treatment area.

FIG. 55 depicts an embodiment of an aerial view of a pattern of heatersfor heating a hydrocarbon containing formation. Heat sources 744 may beplaced in formation 746. Heat sources 744 may be placed in a triangularpattern, as depicted in FIG. 55, or any other pattern as desired.Formation 746 may include one or more volumes 748, 750 to be heated.Volumes 748, 750 may be alternating volumes of formation 746 as depictedin FIG. 55. In some embodiments, heat sources 744 in volumes 748, 750may be turned on, or begin heating, substantially simultaneously (i.e.,heat sources 744 may be turned on within days or, in some cases, within1 or 2 months of each other). Turning on all heat sources 744 in volumes748, 750 may, however, cause significant amounts of geomechanical motionin formation 746. This geomechanical motion may deform the wellbores ofone or more heat sources 744 and/or other wellbores in the formation.The outermost wellbores in formation 746 may be most susceptible todeformation. These wellbores may be more susceptible to deformationbecause geomechanical motion tends to be a cumulative effect, increasingfrom the center of a heated volume towards the perimeter of the heatedvolume.

FIG. 56 depicts an embodiment of an aerial view of another pattern ofheaters for heating a hydrocarbon containing formation. Volumes 748, 750may be concentric rings of volumes, as shown in FIG. 56. Heat sources744 may be placed in a desired pattern or patterns in volumes 748, 750.In a concentric ring pattern of volumes 748, 750, the geomechanicalmotion may be reduced in the outer rings of volumes because of theincreased circumference of the volumes as the rings move outward.

In other embodiments, volumes 748, 750 may have other footprint shapesand/or be placed in other shaped patterns. For example, volumes 748, 750may have linear, curved, or irregularly shaped strip footprints. In someembodiments, volumes 750 may separate volumes 748 and thus be used toinhibit geomechanical motion in volumes 748 (i.e., volumes 750 mayfunction as a barrier (e.g., a wall) to reduce the effect ofgeomechanical motion of one volume 748 on another volume 748).

In certain embodiments, heat sources 744 in volumes 748, 750, as shownin FIGS. 55 and 56, may be turned on at different times to avoid heatinglarge volumes of the formation at one time and/or to reduce the effectsof geomechanical motion. In one embodiment, heat sources 744 in volumes748 may be turned on, or begin heating, at substantially the same time(i.e., within 1 or 2 months of each other). Heat sources 744 in volumes750 may be turned off while volumes 748 are being heated. Heat sources744 in volumes 750 may be turned on, or begin heating, a selected timeafter heat sources 744 in volumes 748 are turned on or begin heating.Providing heat to only volumes 748 for a selected period of time mayreduce the effects of geomechanical motion in the formation during aselected period of time. During the selected period of time, somegeomechanical motion may take place in volumes 748. The size, as well asshape and/or location, of volumes 748 may be selected to maintain thegeomechanical expansion of the formation in these volumes below amaximum value. The maximum value of geomechanical expansion of theformation may be a value selected to inhibit deformation of one or morewellbores beyond a critical value of deformation (i.e., a point at whichthe wellbores are damaged or equipment in the wellbores is no longeruseable).

The size, shape, and/or location of volumes 748 may be determined bysimulation, calculation, or any suitable method for estimating theextent of geomechanical motion during heating of the formation. In oneembodiment, simulations may be used to determine the amount ofgeomechanical motion that may take place in heating a volume of aformation to a predetermined temperature. The size of the volume of theformation that is heated to the predetermined temperature may be variedin the simulation until a size of the volume is found that maintains anydeformation of a wellbore below the critical value.

Sizes of volumes 748, 750 may be represented by a footprint area on thesurface of a volume and the depth of the portion of the formationcontained in the volume. The sizes of volumes 748, 750 may be varied byvarying footprint areas of the volumes. In an embodiment, the footprintsof volumes 748, 750 may be less than about 10,000 square meters, lessthan about 6000 square meters, less than about 4000 square meters, orless than about 3000 square meters.

Expansion in a formation may be zone, or layer, specific. In someformations, layers or zones of the formation may have different thermalconductivities and/or different thermal expansion coefficients. Forexample, a hydrocarbon containing formation may have certain thin layers(e.g., layers having a richness above about 0.15 L/kg) that have lowerthermal conductivities and higher thermal expansion coefficients thanadjacent layers of the formation. The thin layers with low thermalconductivities and high thermal conductivities may lie within differenthorizontal planes of the formation. The differences in the expansion ofthin layers may have to be accounted for in determining the sizes ofvolumes of the formation that are to be heated. Generally, the largestexpansion may be from zones or layers with low thermal conductivitiesand/or high thermal expansion coefficients. In some embodiments, thesize, shape, and/or location of volumes 748, 750 may be determined toaccommodate expansion characteristics of low thermal conductivity and/orhigh thermal expansion layers.

In some embodiments, the size, shape, and/or location of volumes 750 maybe selected to inhibit cumulative geomechanical motion from occurring inthe formation. In certain embodiments, volumes 750 may have a volumesufficient to inhibit cumulative geomechanical motion from affectingspaced apart volumes 748. In one embodiment, volumes 750 may have afootprint area substantially similar to the footprint area of volumes748. Having volumes 748, 750 of substantially similar size may establisha uniform heating profile in the formation.

In certain embodiments, heat sources 744 in volumes 750 may be turned onat a selected time after heat sources 744 in volumes 748 have beenturned on. Heat sources 744 in volumes 750 may be turned on, or beginheating, within about 6 months (or within about 1 year or about 2 years)from the time heat sources 744 in volumes 748 begin heating. Heatsources 744 in volumes 750 may be turned on after a selected amount ofexpansion has occurred in volumes 748. In one embodiment, heat sources744 in volumes 750 are turned on after volumes 748 have geomechanicallyexpanded to or nearly to their maximum possible expansion. For example,heat sources 744 in volumes 750 may be turned on after volumes 748 havegeomechanically expanded to greater than about 70%, greater than about80%, or greater than about 90% of their maximum estimated expansion. Theestimated possible expansion of a volume may be determined by asimulation, or other suitable method, as the expansion that will occurin a volume when the volume is heated to a selected average temperature.Simulations may also take into effect strength characteristics of a rockmatrix. Strong expansion in a formation occurs up to typically about200° C. Expansion in the formation is generally much slower from about200° C. to about 350° C. At temperatures above retorting temperatures,there may be little or no expansion in the formation. In someformations, there may be compaction of the formation above retortingtemperatures. The average temperature used to determine estimatedexpansion may be, for example, a maximum temperature that the volume ofthe formation is heated to during in situ treatment of the formation(e.g., about 325° C., about 350° C., etc.). Heating volumes 750 aftersignificant expansion of volumes 748 occurs may reduce, inhibit, and/oraccommodate the effects of cumulative geomechanical motion in theformation.

In some embodiments, heat sources 744 in volumes 750 may be turned onafter heat sources 744 in volumes 748 at a time selected to maintain arelatively constant production rate from the formation. Maintaining arelatively constant production rate from the formation may reduce costsassociated with equipment used for producing fluids and/or treatingfluids produced from the formation (e.g., purchasing equipment,operating equipment, purchasing raw materials, etc.). In certainembodiments, heat sources 744 in volumes 750 may be turned on after heatsources 744 in volumes 748 at a time selected to enhance a productionrate from the formation. Simulations, or other suitable methods, may beused to determine the relative time at which heat sources 744 in volumes748 and heat sources 744 in volumes 750 are turned on to maintain aproduction rate, or enhance a production rate, from the formation.

Some embodiments of heaters may include switches (e.g., fuses and/orthermostats) that turn off power to a heater or portions of a heaterwhen a certain condition is reached in the heater. In certainembodiments, a “temperature limited heater” may be used to provide heatto a hydrocarbon containing formation. A temperature limited heatergenerally refers to a heater that regulates heat output (e.g., reducesheat output) above a specified temperature without the use of externalcontrols such as temperature controllers, power regulators, etc.Temperature limited heaters may be AC (alternating current) electricalresistance heaters.

Temperature limited heaters may be more reliable than other heaters.Temperature limited heaters may be less apt to break down or fail due tohot spots in the formation. In some embodiments, temperature limitedheaters may allow for substantially uniform heating of a formation. Insome embodiments, temperature limited heaters may be able to heat aformation more efficiently by operating at a higher average temperaturealong the entire length of the heater. The temperature limited heatermay be operated at the higher average temperature along the entirelength of the heater because power to the heater does not have to bereduced to the entire heater (e.g., along the entire length of theheater), as is the case with typical heaters, if a temperature along anypoint of the heater exceeds, or is about to exceed, a maximum operatingtemperature of the heater. Heat output from portions of a temperaturelimited heater approaching a Curie temperature of the heater mayautomatically reduce (e.g., reduce without controlled adjustment ofalternating current applied to the heater). The heat output mayautomatically reduce due to changes in electrical properties (e.g.,electrical resistance) of portions of the temperature limited heater.Thus, more power may be supplied to the temperature limited heaterduring a greater portion of a heating process.

In the context of reduced heat output heating systems, apparatus, andmethods, the term “automatically” means such systems, apparatus, andmethods function in a certain way without the use of external control(e.g., external controllers such as a controller with a temperaturesensor and a feedback loop). For example, a system including temperaturelimited heaters may initially provide a first heat output, and thenprovide a reduced amount of heat, near, at, or above a Curie temperatureof an electrically resistive portion of the heater when the temperaturelimited heater is energized by an alternating current.

Temperature limited heaters may be in configurations and/or may includematerials that provide automatic temperature limiting properties for theheater at certain temperatures. For example, ferromagnetic materials maybe used in temperature limited heater embodiments. Ferromagneticmaterial may self-limit temperature at or near a Curie temperature ofthe material to provide a reduced amount of heat at or near the Curietemperature when an alternating current is applied to the material. Incertain embodiments, ferromagnetic materials may be coupled with othermaterials (e.g., non-ferromagnetic materials and/or highly conductivematerials such as copper) to provide various electrical and/ormechanical properties. Some parts of a temperature limited heater mayhave a lower resistance (caused by different geometries and/or by usingdifferent ferromagnetic and/or non-ferromagnetic materials) than otherparts of the temperature limited heater. Having parts of a temperaturelimited heater with various materials and/or dimensions may allow fortailoring a desired heat output from each part of the heater. Usingferromagnetic materials in temperature limited heaters may be lessexpensive and more reliable than using switches in temperature limitedheaters.

Curie temperature is the temperature above which a magnetic material(e.g., a ferromagnetic material) loses its magnetic properties. Inaddition to losing magnetic properties above the Curie temperature, aferromagnetic material may begin to lose its magnetic properties when anincreasing electrical current is passed through the ferromagneticmaterial.

A heater may include a conductor that operates as a skin effect heaterwhen alternating current is applied to the conductor. The skin effectlimits the depth of current penetration into the interior of theconductor. For ferromagnetic materials, the skin effect is dominated bythe magnetic permeability of the conductor. The relative magneticpermeability of ferromagnetic materials is typically greater than 10 andmay be greater than 50, 100, 500 or even 1000. As the temperature of theferromagnetic material is raised above the Curie temperature and/or asan applied electrical current is increased, the magnetic permeability ofthe ferromagnetic material decreases substantially and the skin depthexpands rapidly (e.g., as the inverse square root of the magneticpermeability). The reduction in magnetic permeability results in adecrease in the AC resistance of the conductor near, at, or above theCurie temperature and/or as an applied electrical current is increased.When the heater is powered by a substantially constant current source,portions of the heater that approach, reach, or are above the Curietemperature may have reduced heat dissipation. Sections of the heaterthat are not at or near the Curie temperature may be dominated by skineffect heating that allows the heater to have high heat dissipation.

In some embodiments, a temperature limited heater (e.g., a Curietemperature heater) may be formed of a paramagnetic material. Aparamagnetic material typically has a relative magnetic permeabilitythat is greater than 1 and less than 10. Temperature limitingcharacteristics of a temperature limited heater formed of paramagneticheater may be significantly less pronounced than temperature limitingcharacteristics of a temperature limited heater formed of ferromagneticmaterial.

Curie temperature heaters have been used in soldering equipment, heatersfor medical applications, and heating elements for ovens (e.g., pizzaovens). Some of these uses are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,579,575 toLamome et al.; 5,065,501 to Henschen et al.; and 5,512,732 to Yagnik etal., all of which are incorporated by reference as if fully set forthherein. U.S. Pat. No. 4,849,611 to Whitney et al., which is incorporatedby reference as if fully set forth herein, describes a plurality ofdiscrete, spaced-apart heating units including a reactive component, aresistive heating component, and a temperature responsive component.

An advantage of using a temperature limited heater to heat a hydrocarboncontaining formation may be that the conductor can be chosen to have aCurie temperature in a desired range of temperature operation. Thedesired operating range may allow substantial heat injection into theformation while maintaining the temperature of the heater, and otherequipment, below design temperatures (i.e., below temperatures that willadversely affect properties such as corrosion, creep, and/ordeformation). The temperature limiting properties of the heater mayinhibit overheating or burnout of the heater adjacent to low thermalconductivity “hot spots” in the formation. In some embodiments, atemperature limited heater may be able to withstand temperatures aboveabout 25° C., about 37° C., about 100° C., about 250° C., about 500° C.,about 700° C., about 800° C., about 900° C., or higher depending on thematerials used in the heater.

A temperature limited heater may allow for more heat injection into aformation than constant wattage heaters because the energy input intothe temperature limited heater does not have to be limited toaccommodate low thermal conductivity regions adjacent to the heater. Forexample, in Green River oil shale there is a difference of at least 50%in the thermal conductivity of the lowest richness oil shale layers(less than about 0.04 L/kg) and the highest richness oil shale layers(greater than about 0.20 L/kg). When heating such a formation,substantially more heat may be transferred to the formation with atemperature limited heater than with a heater that is limited by thetemperature at low thermal conductivity layers, which may be only about0.3 m thick. Because heaters for heating hydrocarbon formationstypically have long lengths (e.g., greater than 10 m, 100 m, or 300 m),the majority of the length of the heater may be operating below theCurie temperature while only a few portions are at or near the Curietemperature of the heater.

The use of temperature limited heaters may allow for efficient transferof heat to a formation. The efficient transfer of heat may allow forreduction in time needed to heat a formation to a desired temperature.For example, in Green River oil shale, pyrolysis may require about 9.5years to about 10 years of heating when using about a 12 m heater wellspacing with conventional constant wattage heaters. For the same heaterspacing, temperature limited heaters may allow a larger average heatoutput while maintaining heater equipment temperatures below equipmentdesign limit temperatures. Pyrolysis in a formation may occur at anearlier time with the larger average heat output provided by temperaturelimited heaters. For example, in Green River oil shale, pyrolysis mayoccur in about 5 years using temperature limited heaters with about a 12m heater well spacing. Temperature limited heaters may counteract hotspots due to inaccurate well spacing or drilling where heater wells cometoo close together.

Temperature limited heaters may be advantageously used in many othertypes of hydrocarbon containing formations. For example, in tar sandsformations or relatively permeable formations containing heavyhydrocarbons, temperature limited heaters may be used to provide acontrollable low temperature output for reducing the viscosity offluids, mobilizing fluids, an/or enhancing the radial flow of fluids ator near the wellbore or in the formation. Temperature limited heatersmay inhibit excess coke formation due to overheating of the nearwellbore region of the formation.

The use of temperature limited heaters may eliminate or reduce the needto perform temperature logging and/or the need to use fixedthermocouples on the heaters to monitor potential overheating at hotspots. The temperature limited heater may eliminate or reduce the needfor expensive temperature control circuitry.

A temperature limited heater may be deformation tolerant if localizedmovement of a wellbore results in lateral stresses on the heater thatcould deform its shape. Locations along a length of a heater at whichthe wellbore approaches or closes on the heater may be hot spots where astandard heater overheats and has the potential to burn out. These hotspots may lower the yield strength and creep strength of the metal,allowing crushing or deformation of the heater. The temperature limitedheater may be formed with S curves (or other non-linear shapes) thataccommodate deformation of the temperature limited heater withoutcausing failure of the heater.

In some embodiments, temperature limited heaters may be more economicalto manufacture or make than standard heaters. Typical ferromagneticmaterials include iron, carbon steel, or ferritic stainless steel. Suchmaterials may be inexpensive as compared to nickel-based heating alloys(such as nichrome, Kanthal, etc.) typically used in insulated conductorheaters. In one embodiment of a temperature limited heater, the heatermay be manufactured in continuous lengths as an insulated conductorheater (e.g., a mineral insulated cable) to lower costs and improvereliability.

In some embodiments, a temperature limited heater may be placed in aheater well using a coiled tubing rig. A heater that can be coiled on aspool may be manufactured by using metal such as ferritic stainlesssteel (e.g., 409 stainless steel) that is welded using electricalresistance welding (ERW). To form a heater section, a metal strip from aroll is passed through a first former where it is shaped into a tubularand then longitudinally welded using ERW. The tubular is passed througha second former where a conductive strip (e.g., a copper strip) isapplied, drawn down tightly on the tubular through a die, andlongitudinally welded using ERW. A sheath may be formed bylongitudinally welding a support material (e.g., steel such as 347H or347HH) over the conductive strip material. The support material may be astrip rolled over the conductive strip material. An overburden sectionof the heater may be formed in a similar manner. In certain embodiments,the overburden section uses a non-ferromagnetic material such as 304stainless steel or 316 stainless steel instead of a ferromagneticmaterial. The heater section and overburden section may be coupledtogether using standard techniques such as butt welding using an orbitalwelder. In some embodiments, the overburden section material (i.e., thenon-ferromagnetic material) may be pre-welded to the ferromagneticmaterial before rolling. The pre-welding may eliminate the need for aseparate coupling (i.e., butt welding) step. In an embodiment, aflexible cable (e.g., a furnace cable such as a MGT 1000 furnace cable)may be pulled through the center after forming the tubular heater. Anend bushing on the flexible cable may be welded to the tubular heater toprovide an electrical current return path. The tubular heater, includingthe flexible cable, may be coiled onto a spool before installation intoa heater well. In an embodiment, a temperature limited heater may beinstalled using a coiled tubing rig. The coiled tubing rig may place thetemperature limited heater in a deformation resistant container in aformation. The deformation resistant container may be placed in theheater well using conventional methods.

In an embodiment, a Curie heater includes a furnace cable inside aferromagnetic conduit (e.g., a ¾″ Schedule 80 446 stainless steel pipe).The ferromagnetic conduit may be clad with copper or another suitableconductive material. The ferromagnetic conduit may be placed in adeformation-tolerant conduit or deformation resistant container. Thedeformation-tolerant conduit may tolerate longitudinal deformation,radial deformation, and creep. The deformation-tolerant conduit may alsosupport the ferromagnetic conduit and furnace cable. Thedeformation-tolerant conduit may be selected based on creep and/orcorrosion resistance near or at the Curie temperature. In oneembodiment, the deformation-tolerant conduit may be 1½″ Schedule 80 347Hstainless steel pipe (outside diameter of about 4.826 cm) or 1½″Schedule 160 347H stainless steel pipe (outside diameter of about 4.826cm). The diameter and/or materials of the deformation-tolerant conduitmay vary depending on, for example, characteristics of the formation tobe heated or desired heat output characteristics of the heater. Incertain embodiments, air may be removed from the annulus between thedeformation-tolerant conduit and the clad ferromagnetic conduit. Thespace between the deformation-tolerant conduit and the cladferromagnetic conduit may be flushed with a pressurized inert gas (e.g.,helium, nitrogen, argon, or mixtures thereof). In some embodiments, theinert gas may include a small amount of hydrogen to act as a “getter”for residual oxygen. The inert gas may pass down the annulus from thesurface, enter the inner diameter of the ferromagnetic conduit through asmall hole near the bottom of the heater, and flow up inside theferromagnetic conduit. Removal of the air in the annulus may reduceoxidation of materials in the heater (e.g., the nickel-coated copperwires of the furnace cable) to provide a longer life heater, especiallyat elevated temperatures. Thermal conduction between a furnace cable andthe ferromagnetic conduit, and between the ferromagnetic conduit and thedeformation-tolerant conduit, may be improved when the inert gas ishelium. The pressurized inert gas in the annular space may also provideadditional support for the deformation-tolerant conduit against highformation pressures.

Temperature limited heaters may be used for heating hydrocarbonformations including, but not limited to, oil shale formations, coalformations, tar sands formations, and heavy viscous oils. Temperaturelimited heaters may be used for remediation of contaminated soil.Temperature limited heaters may also be used in the field ofenvironmental remediation to vaporize or destroy soil contaminants.Embodiments of temperature limited heaters may be used to heat fluids ina wellbore or sub-sea pipeline to inhibit deposition of paraffin orvarious hydrates. In some embodiments, a temperature limited heater maybe used for solution mining of a subsurface formation (e.g., an oilshale or coal formation). In certain embodiments, a fluid (e.g., moltensalt) may be placed in a wellbore and heated with a temperature limitedheater to inhibit deformation and/or collapse of the wellbore. In someembodiments, the temperature limited heater may be attached to a suckerrod in the wellbore or be part of the sucker rod itself. In someembodiments, temperature limited heaters may be used to heat a nearwellbore region to reduce near wellbore oil viscosity during productionof high viscosity crude oils and during transport of high viscosity oilsto the surface. In some embodiments, a temperature limited heater mayenable gas lifting of a viscous oil by lowering the viscosity of the oilwithout coking the oil. Temperature limited heaters may be used insulfur transfer lines to maintain temperatures between about 110° C. andabout 130° C.

Certain embodiments of temperature limited heaters may be used inchemical or refinery processes at elevated temperatures that requirecontrol in a narrow temperature range to inhibit unwanted chemicalreactions or damage from locally elevated temperatures. Someapplications may include, but are not limited to, reactor tubes, cokers,and distillation towers. Temperature limited heaters may also be used inpollution control devices (e.g., catalytic converters, and oxidizers) toallow rapid heating to a control temperature without complex temperaturecontrol circuitry. Additionally, temperature limited heaters may be usedin food processing to avoid damaging food with excessive temperatures.Temperature limited heaters may also be used in the heat treatment ofmetals (e.g., annealing of weld joints). Temperature limited heaters mayalso be used in floor heaters, cauterizers, and/or various otherappliances. Temperature limited heaters may be used with biopsy needlesto destroy tumors by raising temperatures in vivo.

Some embodiments of temperature limited heaters may be useful in certaintypes of medical and/or veterinary devices. For example, a temperaturelimited heater may be used to therapeutically treat tissue in a human oran animal. A temperature limited heater for a medical or veterinarydevice may have ferromagnetic material including a palladium-copperalloy with a Curie temperature of about 50° C. A high frequency (e.g.,greater than about 1 MHz) may be used to power a relatively smalltemperature limited heater for medical and/or veterinary use.

A ferromagnetic alloy used in a Curie temperature heater may determinethe Curie temperature of the heater. Curie temperature data for variousmetals is listed in “American Institute of Physics Handbook,” SecondEdition, McGraw-Hill, pages 5-170 through 5-176. A ferromagneticconductor may include one or more of the ferromagnetic elements (iron,cobalt, and nickel) and/or alloys of these elements. In someembodiments, ferromagnetic conductors may include iron-chromium alloysthat contain tungsten (e.g., HCM12A and SAVE12 (Sumitomo Metals Co.,Japan) and/or iron alloys that contain chromium (e.g., Fe—Cr alloys,Fe—Cr—W alloys, Fe—Cr—V alloys, Fe—Cr—Nb alloys). Of the three mainferromagnetic elements, iron has a Curie temperature of about 770° C.;cobalt has a Curie temperature of about 1131° C.; and nickel has a Curietemperature of about 358° C. An iron-cobalt alloy has a Curietemperature higher than the Curie temperature of iron. For example, aniron alloy with 2% cobalt has a Curie temperature of about 800° C.; aniron alloy with 12% cobalt has a Curie temperature of about 900° C.; andan iron alloy with 20% cobalt has a Curie temperature of about 950° C.An iron-nickel alloy has a Curie temperature lower than the Curietemperature of iron. For example, an iron alloy with 20% nickel has aCurie temperature of about 720° C., and an iron alloy with 60% nickelhas a Curie temperature of about 560° C.

Some non-ferromagnetic elements used as alloys may raise the Curietemperature of iron. For example, an iron alloy with 5.9% vanadium has aCurie temperature of about 815° C. Other non-ferromagnetic elements(e.g., carbon, aluminum, copper, silicon, and/or chromium) may bealloyed with iron or other ferromagnetic materials to lower the Curietemperature. Non-ferromagnetic materials that raise the Curietemperature may be combined with non-ferromagnetic materials that lowerthe Curie temperature and alloyed with iron or other ferromagneticmaterials to produce a material with a desired Curie temperature andother desired physical and/or chemical properties. In some embodiments,the Curie temperature material may be a ferrite such as NiFe₂O₄. Inother embodiments, the Curie temperature material may be a binarycompound such as FeNi₃ or Fe₃Al.

Magnetic properties generally decay as the Curie temperature isapproached. The “Handbook of Electrical Heating for Industry” by C.James Erickson (IEEE Press, 1995) shows a typical curve for 1% carbonsteel (i.e., steel with 1% carbon by weight). The loss of magneticpermeability starts at temperatures above about 650° C. and tends to becomplete when temperatures exceed about 730° C. Thus, the self-limitingtemperature may be somewhat below an actual Curie temperature of aferromagnetic conductor. The skin depth for current flow in 1% carbonsteel is about 0.132 cm at room temperature and increases to about 0.445cm at about 720° C. From about 720° C. to about 730° C., the skin depthsharply increases to over 2.5 cm. Thus, a temperature limited heaterembodiment using 1% carbon steel may self-limit between about 650° C.and about 730° C.

Skin depth generally defines an effective penetration depth ofalternating current into a conductive material. In general, currentdensity decreases exponentially with distance from an outer surface to acenter along a radius of a conductor. The depth at which the currentdensity is approximately 1/e of the surface current density is calledthe skin depth. For a solid cylindrical rod with a diameter much greaterthan the penetration depth, or for hollow cylinders with a wallthickness exceeding the penetration depth, the skin depth, δ, is:

δ=1981.5*((ρ/(μ*f))^(1/2);  (28)

in which:

-   -   δ=skin depth in inches;    -   ρ=resistivity at operating temperature (ohm-cm);    -   μ=relative magnetic permeability; and    -   f=frequency (Hz).

EQN. 28 is obtained from the “Handbook of Electrical Heating forIndustry” by C. James Erickson (IEEE Press, 1995). For most metals,resistivity (ρ) increases with temperature. The relative magneticpermeability generally varies with temperature and with current.Additional equations may be used to assess the variance of magneticpermeability and/or skin depth on both temperature and/or current. Thedependence of μ on current arises from the dependence of μ on themagnetic field.

Materials used in a temperature limited heater may be selected toprovide a desired turndown ratio. Turndown ratio for a temperaturelimited heater is the ratio of the highest AC resistance just below theCurie temperature to the lowest AC resistance just above the Curietemperature. Turndown ratios of at least 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, or greatermay be selected for temperature limited heaters. A selected turndownratio may depend on a number of factors including, but not limited to,the type of formation in which the temperature limited heater is located(e.g., a higher turndown ratio may be used for an oil shale formationwith large variations in thermal conductivity between rich and lean oilshale layers) and/or a temperature limit of materials used in thewellbore (e.g., temperature limits of heater materials). In someembodiments, a turndown ratio may be increased by coupling additionalcopper or another good electrical conductor to a ferromagnetic material(e.g., adding copper to lower the resistance above the Curietemperature).

A temperature limited heater may provide a minimum heat output (i.e.,power output) below the Curie temperature of the heater. In certainembodiments, the minimum heat output may be at least about 400 W/m,about 600 W/m, about 700 W/m, about 800 W/m, or higher. The temperaturelimited heater may reduce the amount of heat output by a section of theheater when the temperature of the section of the heater approaches oris above the Curie temperature. The reduced amount of heat may besubstantially less than the heat output below the Curie temperature. Insome embodiments, the reduced amount of heat may be less than about 400W/m, less than about 200 W/m, or may approach 100 W/m.

In some embodiments, a temperature limited heater may operatesubstantially independently of the thermal load on the heater in acertain operating temperature range. “Thermal load” is the rate thatheat is transferred from a heating system to its surroundings. It is tobe understood that the thermal load may vary with temperature of thesurroundings and/or the thermal conductivity of the surroundings. In anembodiment, a temperature limited heater may operate at or above a Curietemperature of the heater such that the operating temperature of theheater does not vary by more than about 1.5° C. for a decrease inthermal load of about 1 W/m proximate to a portion of the heater. Insome embodiments, the operating temperature of the heater may not varyby more than about 1° C., or by more than about 0.5° C. for a decreasein thermal load of about 1 W/m.

The AC resistance or heat output of a portion of a temperature limitedheater may decrease sharply above the Curie temperature of the portiondue to the Curie effect. In certain embodiments, the value of the ACresistance or heat output above or near the Curie temperature is lessthan about one-half of the value of AC resistance or heat output at acertain point below the Curie temperature. In some embodiments, the heatoutput above or near the Curie temperature may be less than about 40%,30%, or 20% of the heat output at a certain point below the Curietemperature (e.g., about 30° C. below the Curie temperature, about 40°C. below the Curie temperature, about 50° C. below the Curietemperature, or about 100° C. below the Curie temperature). In certainembodiments, the AC resistance above or near the Curie temperature maydecrease to about 80%, 70%, 60%, or 50%, of the AC resistance at acertain point below the Curie temperature (e.g., about 30° C. below theCurie temperature, about 40° C. below the Curie temperature, about 50°C. below the Curie temperature, or about 100° C. below the Curietemperature).

In some embodiments, AC frequency may be adjusted to change the skindepth of a ferromagnetic material. For example, the skin depth of 1%carbon steel at room temperature is about 0.132 cm at 60 Hz, about0.0762 cm at 180 Hz, and about 0.046 cm at 440 Hz. Since heater diameteris typically larger than twice the skin depth, using a higher frequency(and thus a heater with a smaller diameter) may reduce equipment costs.For a fixed geometry, a higher frequency results in a higher turndownratio. The turndown ratio at a higher frequency may be calculated bymultiplying the turndown ratio at a lower frequency by the square rootof the higher frequency divided by the lower frequency. In someembodiments, a frequency between about 100 Hz and about 1000 Hz may beused (e.g., about 180 Hz). In some embodiments, a frequency betweenabout 140 Hz and about 200 Hz may be used. In some embodiments, afrequency between about 400 Hz and about 600 Hz may be used (e.g., about540 Hz).

To maintain a substantially constant skin depth until the Curietemperature of a heater is reached, the heater may be operated at alower frequency when the heater is cold and operated at a higherfrequency when the heater is hot. Line frequency heating is generallyfavorable, however, because there is less need for expensive components(e.g., power supplies that alter frequency). Line frequency is thefrequency of a general supply (e.g., a utility company) of current. Linefrequency is typically 60 Hz, but may be 50 Hz or other frequenciesdepending on the source (e.g., the geographic location) for the supplyof the current. Higher frequencies may be produced using commerciallyavailable equipment (e.g., solid state variable frequency powersupplies). Transformers are also commercially available that can convertthree-phase power to single-phase power with three times the frequency.For example, high voltage three-phase power at 60 Hz may be transformedto single-phase power 180 Hz at a lower voltage. Such transformers maybe less expensive and more energy efficient than solid state variablefrequency power supplies. In certain embodiments, transformers thatconvert three-phase power to single-phase power may be used to increasethe frequency of power supplied to a heater.

In some embodiments, electrical voltage and/or electrical current may beadjusted to change the skin depth of a ferromagnetic material.Increasing the voltage and/or decreasing the current may decrease theskin depth of a ferromagnetic material. A smaller skin depth may allow aheater with a smaller diameter to be used, thereby reducing equipmentcosts. In certain embodiments, the applied current may be at least about1 amp, about 10 amps, about 70 amps, 100 amps, 200 amps, 500 amps, orgreater. In some embodiments, alternating current may be supplied atvoltages above about 200 volts, above about 480 volts, above about 650volts, above about 1000 volts, or above about 1500 volts.

In an embodiment, a temperature limited heater may include an innerconductor inside an outer conductor. The inner conductor and the outerconductor may be radially disposed about a central axis. The inner andouter conductors may be separated by an insulation layer. In certainembodiments, the inner and outer conductors may be coupled at the bottomof the heater. Electrical current may flow into the heater through theinner conductor and return through the outer conductor. One or bothconductors may include ferromagnetic material.

An insulation layer may comprise an electrically insulating ceramic withhigh thermal conductivity, such as magnesium oxide, aluminum oxide,silicon dioxide, beryllium oxide, boron nitride, silicon nitride, etc.The insulating layer may be a compacted powder (e.g., compacted ceramicpowder). Compaction may improve thermal conductivity and provide betterinsulation resistance. For lower temperature applications, polymerinsulation made from, for example, fluoropolymers, polyimides,polyamides, and/or polyethylenes, may be used. In some embodiments, thepolymer insulation may be made of perfluoroalkoxy (PFA) orpolyetheretherketone (PEEK). The insulating layer may be chosen to besubstantially infrared transparent to aid heat transfer from the innerconductor to the outer conductor. In an embodiment, the insulating layermay be transparent quartz sand. The insulation layer may be air or anon-reactive gas such as helium, nitrogen, or sulfur hexafluoride. Ifthe insulation layer is air or a non-reactive gas, there may beinsulating spacers designed to inhibit electrical contact between theinner conductor and the outer conductor. The insulating spacers may bemade of, for example, high purity aluminum oxide or another thermallyconducting, electrically insulating material such as silicon nitride.The insulating spacers may be a fibrous ceramic material such as Nextel™312, mica tape, or glass fiber. Ceramic material may be made of alumina,alumina-silicate, alumina-borosilicate, silicon nitride, or othermaterials.

An insulation layer may be flexible and/or substantially deformationtolerant. For example, if the insulation layer is a solid or compactedmaterial that substantially fills the space between the inner and outerconductors, the heater may be flexible and/or substantially deformationtolerant. Forces on the outer conductor can be transmitted through theinsulation layer to the solid inner conductor, which may resistcrushing. Such a heater may be bent, dog-legged, and spiraled withoutcausing the outer conductor and the inner conductor to electricallyshort to each other. Deformation tolerance may be important if awellbore is likely to undergo substantial deformation during heating ofthe formation.

In certain embodiments, the outer conductor may be chosen for corrosionand/or creep resistance. In one embodiment, austentitic(non-ferromagnetic) stainless steels such as 304H, 347H, 347HH, 316H, or310H stainless steels may be used in the outer conductor. The outerconductor may also include a clad conductor. For example, a corrosionresistant alloy such as 800H or 347H stainless steel may be clad forcorrosion protection over a ferromagnetic carbon steel tubular. If hightemperature strength is not required, the outer conductor may beconstructed from a ferromagnetic metal with good corrosion resistance(e.g., one of the ferritic stainless steels). In one embodiment, aferritic alloy of 82.3% iron with 17.7% chromium (Curie temperature 678°C.) may provide desired corrosion resistance.

The Metals Handbook, vol. 8, page 291 (American Society of Materials(ASM)) shows a graph of Curie temperature of iron-chromium alloys versusthe amount of chromium in the alloys. In some temperature limited heaterembodiments, a separate support rod or tubular (made from, e.g., 347Hstainless steel) may be coupled to a heater (e.g., a heater made from aniron/chromium alloy) to provide strength and/or creep resistance. Thesupport material and/or the ferromagnetic material may be selected toprovide a 100,000 hour creep-rupture strength of at least 3,000 psi(20.7 MPa) at about 650° C. In some embodiments, the 100,000 hourcreep-rupture strength may be at least about 2,000 psi (13.8 MPa) atabout 650° C. or at least about 1,000 psi at about 650° C. For example,347H steel has a favorable creep-rupture strength at or above 650° C. Insome embodiments, the 100,000 hour creep-rupture strength may range fromabout 1,000 psi (6.9 MPa) to about 6,000 psi (41.3 MPa) or more forlonger heaters and/or higher earth or fluid stresses.

In an embodiment with an inner ferromagnetic conductor and an outerferromagnetic conductor, the skin effect current path occurs on theoutside of the inner conductor and on the inside of the outer conductor.Thus, the outside of the outer conductor may be clad with a corrosionresistant alloy, such as stainless steel, without affecting the skineffect current path on the inside of the outer conductor.

A ferromagnetic conductor with a thickness greater than the skin depthat the Curie temperature may allow a substantial decrease in ACresistance of the ferromagnetic material as the skin depth increasessharply near the Curie temperature. In certain embodiments (e.g., whennot cladded with a highly conducting material such as copper), thethickness of the conductor may be about 1.5 times the skin depth nearthe Curie temperature, about 3 times the skin depth near the Curietemperature, or even about 10 or more times the skin depth near theCurie temperature. If the ferromagnetic conductor is clad with copper,thickness of the ferromagnetic conductor may be substantially the sameas the skin depth near the Curie temperature. In some embodiments, aferromagnetic conductor clad with copper may have a thickness of atleast about three-fourths of the skin depth near the Curie temperature.

In an embodiment, a temperature limited heater may include a compositeconductor with a ferromagnetic tubular and a non-ferromagnetic, highelectrical conductivity core. The non-ferromagnetic, high electricalconductivity core may reduce a required diameter of the conductor. Forexample, the conductor may be a composite 1.19 cm diameter conductorwith a core of 0.575 cm diameter copper clad with a 0.298 cm thicknessof ferritic stainless steel or carbon steel surrounding the core. Acomposite conductor may allow the electrical resistance of thetemperature limited heater to decrease more steeply near the Curietemperature. As the skin depth increases near the Curie temperature toinclude the copper core, the electrical resistance may decrease verysharply.

A composite conductor may increase the conductivity of a temperaturelimited heater and/or allow the heater to operate at lower voltages. Inan embodiment, a composite conductor may exhibit a relatively flatresistance versus temperature profile. In some embodiments, atemperature limited heater may exhibit a relatively flat resistanceversus temperature profile between about 100° C. and about 750° C., orin a temperature range between about 300° C. and about 600° C. Arelatively flat resistance versus temperature profile may also beexhibited in other temperature ranges by adjusting, for example,materials and/or the configuration of materials in a temperature limitedheater.

In certain embodiments, the relative thickness of each material in acomposite conductor may be selected to produce a desired resistivityversus temperature profile for a temperature limited heater. In anembodiment, the composite conductor may be an inner conductor surroundedby 0.127 cm thick magnesium oxide powder as an insulator. The outerconductor may be 304H stainless steel with a wall thickness of 0.127 cm.The outside diameter of the heater may be about 1.65 cm.

A composite conductor (e.g., a composite inner conductor or a compositeouter conductor) may be manufactured by methods including, but notlimited to, coextrusion, roll forming, tight fit tubing (e.g., coolingthe inner member and heating the outer member, then inserting the innermember in the outer member, followed by a drawing operation and/orallowing the system to cool), explosive or electromagnetic cladding, arcoverlay welding, longitudinal strip welding, plasma powder welding,billet coextrusion, electroplating, drawing, sputtering, plasmadeposition, coextrusion casting, magnetic forming, molten cylindercasting (of inner core material inside the outer or vice versa),insertion followed by welding or high temperature braising, shieldedactive gas welding (SAG), and/or insertion of an inner pipe in an outerpipe followed by mechanical expansion of the inner pipe by hydroformingor use of a pig to expand and swage the inner pipe against the outerpipe. In some embodiments, a ferromagnetic conductor may be braided overa non-ferromagnetic conductor. In certain embodiments, compositeconductors may be formed using methods similar to those used forcladding (e.g., cladding copper to steel). A metallurgical bond betweencopper cladding and base ferromagnetic material may be advantageous.Composite conductors produced by a coextrusion process that forms a goodmetallurgical bond (e.g., a good bond between copper and 446 stainlesssteel) may be provided by Anomet Products, Inc. (Shrewsbury, Mass.).

In an embodiment, two or more conductors may be joined to form acomposite conductor by various methods (e.g., longitudinal stripwelding) to provide tight contact between the conducting layers. Incertain embodiments, two or more conducting layers and/or insulatinglayers may be combined to form a composite heater with layers selectedsuch that the coefficient of thermal expansion decreases with eachsuccessive layer from the inner layer toward the outer layer. As thetemperature of the heater increases, the innermost layer expands to thegreatest degree. Each successive outwardly lying layer expands to aslightly lesser degree, with the outermost layer expanding the least.This sequential expansion may provide relatively intimate contactbetween layers for good electrical contact between layers.

In an embodiment, two or more conductors may be drawn together to form acomposite conductor. In certain embodiments, a relatively malleableferromagnetic conductor (e.g., iron such as 1018 steel) may be used toform a composite conductor. A relatively soft ferromagnetic conductortypically has a low carbon content. A relatively malleable ferromagneticconductor may be useful in drawing processes for forming compositeconductors and/or other processes that require stretching or bending ofthe ferromagnetic conductor. In a drawing process, the ferromagneticconductor may be annealed after one or more steps of the drawingprocess. The ferromagnetic conductor may be annealed in an inert gasatmosphere to inhibit oxidation of the conductor. In some embodiments,oil may be placed on the ferromagnetic conductor to inhibit oxidation ofthe conductor during processing.

The diameter of a temperature limited heater may be small enough toinhibit deformation of the heater by a collapsing formation. In certainembodiments, the outside diameter of a temperature limited heater may beless than about 5 cm. In some embodiments, the outside diameter of atemperature limited heater may be less than about 4 cm, less than about3 cm, or between about 2 cm and about 5 cm.

In heater embodiments described herein (including, but not limited to,temperature limited heaters, insulated conductor heaters,conductor-in-conduit heaters, and elongated member heaters), a largesttransverse cross-sectional dimension of a heater may be selected toprovide a desired ratio of the largest transverse cross-sectionaldimension to wellbore diameter (e.g., initial wellbore diameter). Thelargest transverse cross-sectional dimension is the largest dimension ofthe heater on the same axis as the wellbore diameter (e.g., the diameterof a cylindrical heater or the width of a vertical heater). In certainembodiments, the ratio of the largest transverse cross-sectionaldimension to wellbore diameter may be selected to be less than about1:2, less than about 1:3, or less than about 1:4. The ratio of heaterdiameter to wellbore diameter may be chosen to inhibit contact and/ordeformation of the heater by the formation (i.e., inhibit closing in ofthe wellbore on the heater) during heating. In certain embodiments, thewellbore diameter may be determined by a diameter of a drillbit used toform the wellbore.

In an embodiment, a wellbore diameter may shrink from an initial valueof about 16.5 cm to about 6.4 cm during heating of a formation (e.g.,for a wellbore in oil shale with a richness greater than about 0.12L/kg). At some point, expansion of formation material into the wellboreduring heating results in a balancing between the hoop stress of thewellbore and the compressive strength due to thermal expansion ofhydrocarbon, or kerogen, rich layers. The hoop stress of the wellboreitself may reduce the stress applied to a conduit (e.g., a liner)located in the wellbore. At this point, the formation may no longer havethe strength to deform or collapse a heater, or a liner. For example,the radial stress provided by formation material may be about 12,000 psi(82.7 MPa) at a diameter of about 16.5 cm, while the stress at adiameter of about 6.4 cm after expansion may be about 3000 psi (20.7MPa). A heater diameter may be selected to be less than about 3.8″ toinhibit contact of the formation and the heater. A temperature limitedheater may advantageously provide a higher heat output over asignificant portion of the wellbore (e.g., the heat output needed toprovide sufficient heat to pyrolyze hydrocarbons in a hydrocarboncontaining formation) than a constant wattage heater for smaller heaterdiameters (e.g., less than about 5.1″).

In certain embodiments, a heater may be placed in a deformationresistant container. The deformation resistant container may provideadditional protection for inhibiting deformation of a heater. Thedeformation resistant container may have a higher creep-rupture strengththan a heater. In one embodiment, a deformation resistant container mayhave a creep-rupture strength of at least about 3000 psi (20.7 MPa) at100,000 hours for a temperature of about 650° C. In some embodiments,the creep-rupture strength of a deformation resistant container may beat least about 4000 psi (27.7 MPa) at 100,000 hours, or at least about5000 psi (34.5 MPa) at 100,000 hours for a temperature of about 650° C.In an embodiment, a deformation resistant container may include one ormore alloys that provide mechanical strength. For example, a deformationresistant container may include an alloy of iron, nickel, chromium,manganese, carbon, tantalum, and/or mixtures thereof (e.g., 347H steel,800H steel, or Inconel® 625).

FIG. 57 depicts radial stress and conduit (e.g., a liner) collapsestrength versus remaining wellbore diameter and conduit outside diameterin an oil shale formation. The calculations for radial stress were basedon the properties of a 52 gallon per ton (0.21 L/kg) oil shale from theGreen River. The heating rate was about 820 watts per meter. Plot REFgs10 \h 752 depicts maximum radial stress from the oil shale versusremaining diameter for an initial wellbore diameter of 6.5 inches (16.5cm). Plot 754 depicts liner collapse strength versus liner outsidediameter for Schedule 80 347H stainless steel pipe at 650° C. Plot 756depicts liner collapse strength versus liner outside diameter forSchedule 160 347H stainless steel pipe at 650° C. Plot 758 depicts linercollapse strength versus liner outside diameter for Schedule XXH 347Hstainless steel conduit at 650° C. Plots 754, 756, and 758 show thatincreasing the thickness of the liner increases the collapse strengthand that a Schedule XXH 347H stainless steel liner may have sufficientcollapse strength to withstand the maximum radial stress from the oilshale at 650° C. The conduit collapse strength should be greater thanthe maximum radial stress to inhibit deformation of the conduit.

FIG. 58 depicts radial stress and conduit collapse strength versus aratio of conduit outside diameter to initial wellbore diameter in an oilshale formation. Plot 760 depicts radial stress from the oil shaleversus the ratio of conduit outside diameter to initial wellborediameter. Plot 760 shows that the radial stress from the oil shaledecreased rapidly from ratios of 1 down to a ratio of about 0.85. Belowa ratio of 0.8, the radial stress slowly decreased. Plot 762 depictsconduit collapse strength versus the ratio of conduit outside diameterto initial wellbore diameter for a Schedule XXH 347H stainless steelconduit. Plot 764 depicts conduit collapse strength versus the ratio ofconduit outside diameter to initial wellbore diameter for a Schedule 160347H stainless steel conduit. Plot 766 depicts conduit collapse strengthversus the ratio of conduit outside diameter to initial wellborediameter for a Schedule 80 347H stainless steel conduit. Plot 768depicts conduit collapse strength versus the ratio of conduit outsidediameter to initial wellbore diameter for a Schedule 40 347H stainlesssteel conduit. Plot 770 depicts conduit collapse strength versus theratio of conduit outside diameter to initial wellbore diameter for aSchedule 10 347H stainless steel conduit. The plots in FIG. 58 show thatbelow a ratio of conduit outside diameter to initial wellbore diameterof 0.75, a Schedule XXH 347H stainless steel conduit has sufficientcollapse strength to withstand radial stress from the oil shale. FIG. 58and other similar plots may be used to choose an initial wellborediameter and the materials and outside diameter of a conduit so thatdeformation of the conduit may be inhibited.

FIG. 59 depicts an embodiment of an apparatus used to form a compositeconductor. Ingot 772 may be a ferromagnetic conductor (e.g., iron orcarbon steel). Ingot 772 may be placed in chamber 774. Chamber 774 maybe made of materials that are electrically insulating and able towithstand temperatures of about 800° C. or higher. In one embodiment,chamber 774 is a quartz chamber. In some embodiments, an inert, ornon-reactive, gas (e.g., argon or nitrogen with a small percentage ofhydrogen) may be placed in chamber 774. In certain embodiments, a flowof inert gas may be provided to chamber 774 to maintain a pressure inthe chamber. Induction coil 776 may be placed around chamber 774. Analternating current may be supplied to induction coil 776 to inductivelyheat ingot 772. Inert gas inside chamber 774 may inhibit oxidation orcorrosion of ingot 772.

Inner conductor 778 may be placed inside ingot 772. Inner conductor 778may be a non-ferromagnetic conductor (e.g., copper or aluminum) thatmelts at a lower temperature than ingot 772. In an embodiment, ingot 772may be heated to a temperature above the melting point of innerconductor 778 and below the melting point of the ingot Inner conductor778 may melt and substantially fill the space inside ingot 772 (i.e.,the inner annulus of the ingot). A cap may be placed at the bottom ofingot 772 to inhibit inner conductor 778 from flowing and/or leaking outof the inner annulus of the ingot. After inner conductor 778 hassufficiently melted to substantially fill the inner annulus of ingot772, the inner conductor and the ingot may be allowed to cool to roomtemperature. Ingot 772 and inner conductor 778 may be cooled at arelatively slow rate to allow inner conductor 778 to form a goodsoldering bond with ingot 772. The rate of cooling may depend on, forexample, the types of materials used for the ingot and the innerconductor.

In some embodiments, a composite conductor may be formed by tube-in-tubemilling of dual metal strips, such as the process performed by PrecisionTube Technology (Houston, Tex.). A tube-in-tube milling process may alsobe used to form cladding on a conductor (e.g., copper cladding insidecarbon steel) or to form two materials into a tight fittube-within-a-tube configuration.

FIG. 60 depicts an embodiment of an inner conductor and an outerconductor formed by a tube-in-tube milling process. Outer conductor 780may be coupled to inner conductor 782. Outer conductor 780 may beweldable material such as steel. Inner conductor 782 may have a higherelectrical conductivity than outer conductor 780. In an embodiment,inner conductor 782 may be copper or aluminum. Weld bead 784 may beformed on outer conductor 780.

In a tube-in-tube milling process, flat strips of material for the outerconductor may have a thickness substantially equal to the desired wallthickness of the outer conductor. The width of the strips may allowformation of a tube of a desired inner diameter. The flat strips may bewelded end-to-end to form an outer conductor of a desired length. Flatstrips of material for the inner conductor may be cut such that theinner conductor formed from the strips fit inside the outer conductor.The flat strips of inner conductor material may be welded togetherend-to-end to achieve a length substantially the same as the desiredlength of the outer conductor. The flat strips for the outer conductorand the flat strips for the inner conductor may be fed into separateaccumulators. Both accumulators may be coupled to a tube mill. The twoflat strips may be sandwiched together at the beginning of the tubemill.

The tube mill may form the flat strips into a tube-in-tube shape. Afterthe tube-in-tube shape has been formed, a non-contact high frequencyinduction welder may heat the ends of the strips of the outer conductorto a forging temperature of the outer conductor. The ends of the stripsthen may be brought together to forge weld the ends of the outerconductor into a weld bead. Excess weld bead material may be cut off. Insome embodiments, the tube-in-tube produced by the tube mill may befurther processed (e.g., annealed and/or pressed) to achieve a desiredsize and/or shape. The result of the tube-in-tube process may be aninner conductor within an outer conductor, as shown in FIG. 60.

In certain embodiments described herein, temperature limited heaters aredimensioned to operate at a frequency of about 60 Hz. It is to beunderstood that dimensions of a temperature limited heater may beadjusted from those described herein in order for the temperaturelimited heater to operate in a similar manner at other frequencies. FIG.61 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater with an outerconductor having a ferromagnetic section and a non-ferromagneticsection. FIGS. 62 and 63 depict transverse cross-sectional views of theembodiment shown in FIG. 61. In one embodiment, ferromagnetic section786 may be used to provide heat to hydrocarbon layers in the formation.Non-ferromagnetic section 788 may be used in an overburden of theformation. Non-ferromagnetic section 788 may provide little or no heatto the overburden, thus inhibiting heat losses in the overburden andimproving heater efficiency. Ferromagnetic section 786 may include aferromagnetic material such as 409 or 410 stainless steel. 409 stainlesssteel may be readily available as strip material. Ferromagnetic section786 may have a thickness of about 0.3 cm. Non-ferromagnetic section 788may be copper with a thickness of about 0.3 cm Inner conductor 790 maybe copper. Inner conductor 790 may have a diameter of about 0.9 cm.Electrical insulator 792 may be magnesium oxide powder or other suitableinsulator material. Electrical insulator 792 may have a thickness ofabout 0.1 cm to about 0.3 cm.

FIG. 64 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater with anouter conductor having a ferromagnetic section and a non-ferromagneticsection placed inside a sheath. FIGS. 65, 66, and 67 depict transversecross-sectional views of the embodiment shown in FIG. 64. Ferromagneticsection 786 may be 410 stainless steel with a thickness of about 0.6 cm.Non-ferromagnetic section 788 may be copper with a thickness of about0.6 cm. Inner conductor 790 may be copper with a diameter of about 0.9cm. Outer conductor 794 may include ferromagnetic material. Outerconductor 794 may provide some heat in the overburden section of theheater. Providing some heat in the overburden may inhibit condensationor refluxing of fluids in the overburden. Outer conductor 794 may be409, 410, or 446 stainless steel with an outer diameter of about 3.0 cmand a thickness of about 0.6 cm. Electrical insulator 792 may bemagnesium oxide powder with a thickness of about 0.3 cm. Conductivesection 796 may couple inner conductor 790 with ferromagnetic section786 and/or outer conductor 794.

FIG. 68 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater with aferromagnetic outer conductor. The heater may be placed in a corrosionresistant jacket. A conductive layer may be placed between the outerconductor and the jacket. FIGS. 69 and 70 depict transversecross-sectional views of the embodiment shown in FIG. 68. Outerconductor 794 may be a ¾″ Schedule 80 446 stainless steel pipe. In anembodiment, conductive layer 798 is placed between outer conductor 794and jacket 800. Conductive layer 798 may be a copper layer. Outerconductor 794 may be clad with conductive layer 798. In certainembodiments, conductive layer 798 may include one or more segments(e.g., conductive layer 798 may include one or more copper tubesegments). Jacket 800 may be a 1¼″ Schedule 80 347H stainless steel pipeor a 1½″ Schedule 160 347H stainless steel pipe. In an embodiment, innerconductor 790 is 4/0 MGT-1000 furnace cable with stranded nickel-coatedcopper wire with layers of mica tape and glass fiber insulation. 4/0MGT-1000 furnace cable is UL type 5107 (available from Allied Wire andCable (Phoenixville, Pa.)). Conductive section 796 may couple innerconductor 790 and jacket 800. In an embodiment, conductive section 796may be copper.

FIG. 71 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater with anouter conductor. The outer conductor may include a ferromagnetic sectionand a non-ferromagnetic section. The heater may be placed in a corrosionresistant jacket. A conductive layer may be placed between the outerconductor and the jacket. FIGS. 72 and 73 depict transversecross-sectional views of the embodiment shown in FIG. 71. Ferromagneticsection 786 may be 409, 410, or 446 stainless steel with a thickness ofabout 0.9 cm. Non-ferromagnetic section 788 may be copper with athickness of about 0.9 cm. Ferromagnetic section 786 andnon-ferromagnetic section 788 may be placed in jacket 800. Jacket 800may be 304 stainless steel with a thickness of about 0.1 cm. Conductivelayer 798 may be a copper layer. Electrical insulator 792 may bemagnesium oxide with a thickness of about 0.1 to 0.3 cm. Inner conductor790 may be copper with a diameter of about 1.0 cm.

In an embodiment, ferromagnetic section 786 may be 446 stainless steelwith a thickness of about 0.9 cm. Jacket 800 may be 410 stainless steelwith a thickness of about 0.6 cm. 410 stainless steel has a higher Curietemperature than 446 stainless steel. Such a temperature limited heatermay “contain” current such that the current does not easily flow fromthe heater to the surrounding formation (i.e., the Earth) and/or to anysurrounding water (e.g., brine in the formation). In this embodiment,current flows through ferromagnetic section 786 until the Curietemperature of the ferromagnetic section is reached. After the Curietemperature of ferromagnetic section 786 is reached, current flowsthrough conductive layer 798. The ferromagnetic properties of jacket 800(410 stainless steel) inhibit the current from flowing outside thejacket and “contain” the current. Jacket 800 may also have a thicknessthat provides strength to the temperature limited heater.

FIG. 74 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater. Theheating section of the temperature limited heater may includenon-ferromagnetic inner conductors and a ferromagnetic outer conductor.The overburden section of the temperature limited heater may include anon-ferromagnetic outer conductor. FIGS. 75, 76, and 77 depicttransverse cross-sectional views of the embodiment shown in FIG. 74.Inner conductor 790 may be copper with a diameter of about 1.0 cm.Electrical insulator 792 may be placed between inner conductor 790 andconductive layer 798. Electrical insulator 792 may be magnesium oxidewith a thickness of about 0.1 cm to about 0.3 cm. Conductive layer 798may be copper with a thickness of about 0.1 cm. Insulation layer 802 maybe in the annulus outside of conductive layer 798. The thickness of theannulus may be about 0.3 cm. Insulation layer 802 may be quartz sand.

Heating section 804 may provide heat to one or more hydrocarbon layersin the formation. Heating section 804 may include ferromagnetic materialsuch as 409 or 410 stainless steel. Heating section 804 may have athickness of about 0.9 cm. Endcap 806 may be coupled to an end ofheating section 804. Endcap 806 may electrically couple heating section804 to inner conductor 790 and/or conductive layer 798. Endcap 806 maybe 304 stainless steel. Heating section 804 may be coupled to overburdensection 808. Overburden section 808 may include carbon steel and/orother suitable support materials. Overburden section 808 may have athickness of about 0.6 cm. Overburden section 808 may be lined withconductive layer 810. Conductive layer 810 may be copper with athickness of about 0.3 cm.

FIG. 78 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater with anoverburden section and a heating section. FIGS. 79 and 80 depicttransverse cross-sectional views of the embodiment shown in FIG. 78. Theoverburden section may include portion 790A of inner conductor 790.Portion 790A may be copper with a diameter of about 1.3 cm. The heatingsection may include portion 790B of inner conductor 790. Portion 790Bmay be copper with a diameter of about 0.5 cm. Portion 790B may beplaced in ferromagnetic conductor 812. Ferromagnetic conductor 812 maybe 446 stainless steel with a thickness of about 0.4 cm. Electricalinsulator 792 may be magnesium oxide with a thickness of about 0.2 cm.Outer conductor 794 may be copper with a thickness of about 0.1 cm.Outer conductor 794 may be placed in jacket 800. Jacket 800 may be 316Hor 347H stainless steel with a thickness of about 0.2 cm.

FIG. 81A and FIG. 81B depict an embodiment of a temperature limitedheater with a ferromagnetic inner conductor Inner conductor 790 may be a1″ Schedule XXS 446 stainless steel pipe. In some embodiments, innerconductor 790 may include 409 stainless steel, 410 stainless steel,Invar 36, alloy 42-6, or other ferromagnetic materials. Inner conductor790 may have a diameter of about 2.5 cm. Electrical insulator 792 may bemagnesium oxide (e.g., magnesium oxide powder), polymers, Nextel ceramicfiber, mica, or glass fibers. Outer conductor 794 may be copper or anyother non-ferromagnetic material (e.g., aluminum). Outer conductor 794may be coupled to jacket 800. Jacket 800 may be 304H, 316H, or 347Hstainless steel. In this embodiment, a majority of the heat may beproduced in inner conductor 790.

FIG. 82A and FIG. 82B depict an embodiment of a temperature limitedheater with a ferromagnetic inner conductor and a non-ferromagneticcore. Inner conductor 790 may include 446 stainless steel, 409 stainlesssteel, 410 stainless steel or other ferromagnetic materials. Core 814may be tightly bonded inside inner conductor 790. Core 814 may be a rodof copper or other non-ferromagnetic material (e.g., aluminum). Core 814may be inserted as a tight fit inside inner conductor 790 before adrawing operation. In some embodiments, core 814 and inner conductor 790may be coextrusion bonded. Electrical insulator 792 may be magnesiumoxide, silicon nitride, Nextel, mica, etc. Outer conductor 794 may be347H stainless steel. A drawing or rolling operation to compactelectrical insulator 792 may ensure good electrical contact betweeninner conductor 790 and core 814. In this embodiment, heat may beproduced primarily in inner conductor 790 until the Curie temperature isapproached. Resistance may then decrease sharply as alternating currentpenetrates core 814.

FIG. 83A and FIG. 83B depict an embodiment of a temperature limitedheater with a ferromagnetic outer conductor. Inner conductor 790 may benickel-clad copper. Electrical insulator 792 may be magnesium oxide.Outer conductor 794 may be a 1″ Schedule XXS carbon steel pipe. In thisembodiment, heat may be produced primarily in outer conductor 794,resulting in a small temperature differential across electricalinsulator 792.

FIG. 84A and FIG. 84B depict an embodiment of a temperature limitedheater with a ferromagnetic outer conductor that is clad with acorrosion resistant alloy Inner conductor 790 may be copper. Electricalinsulator 792 may be magnesium oxide. Outer conductor 794 may be a 1″Schedule XXS 446 stainless steel pipe. Outer conductor 794 may becoupled to jacket 800. Jacket 800 may be made of corrosion resistantmaterial (e.g., 347H stainless steel). Jacket 800 may provide protectionfrom corrosive fluids in the borehole (e.g., sulfidizing and carburizinggases). In this embodiment, heat may be produced primarily in outerconductor 794, resulting in a small temperature differential acrosselectrical insulator 792.

FIG. 85A and FIG. 85B depict an embodiment of a temperature limitedheater with a ferromagnetic outer conductor. The outer conductor may beclad with a conductive layer and a corrosion resistant alloy. Innerconductor 790 may be copper. Electrical insulator 792 may be magnesiumoxide. Outer conductor 794 may be a 1″ Schedule 80 446 stainless steelpipe. Outer conductor 794 may be coupled to jacket 800. Jacket 800 maybe made from a corrosion resistant material (e.g., 347H stainlesssteel). In an embodiment, conductive layer 798 may be placed betweenouter conductor 794 and jacket 800. Conductive layer 798 may be a copperlayer. In this embodiment, heat may be produced primarily in outerconductor 794, resulting in a small temperature differential acrosselectrical insulator 792. Conductive layer 798 may allow a sharpdecrease in the resistance of outer conductor 794 as the outer conductorapproaches the Curie temperature. Jacket 800 may provide protection fromcorrosive fluids in the borehole (e.g., sulfidizing and carburizinggases).

In some embodiments, a conductor (e.g., an inner conductor, an outerconductor, a ferromagnetic conductor) may be a composite conductor thatincludes two or more different materials. In certain embodiments, acomposite conductor may include two or more ferromagnetic materials. Insome embodiments, a composite ferromagnetic conductor includes two ormore radially disposed materials. In certain embodiments, a compositeconductor may include a ferromagnetic conductor and a non-ferromagneticconductor. In some embodiments, a composite conductor may include aferromagnetic conductor placed over a non-ferromagnetic core. Two ormore materials may be used to obtain a relatively flat electricalresistivity versus temperature profile in a temperature region below theCurie temperature and/or a sharp decrease in the electrical resistivityat or near the Curie temperature (e.g., a relatively high turndownratio). In some cases, two or more materials may be used to provide morethan one Curie temperature for a temperature limited heater.

In certain embodiments, a composite electrical conductor may be formedusing a billet coextrusion process. A billet coextrusion process mayinclude coupling together two or more electrical conductors atrelatively high temperatures (e.g., at temperatures that are near orabove 75% of the melting temperature of a conductor). The electricalconductors may be drawn together at the relatively high temperatures.The drawn together conductors may then be cooled to form a compositeelectrical conductor made from the two or more electrical conductors. Insome embodiments, the composite electrical conductor may be a solidcomposite electrical conductor. In certain embodiments, the compositeelectrical conductor may be a tubular composite electrical conductor.

In one embodiment, a copper core may be billet coextruded with astainless steel conductor (e.g., 446 stainless steel). The copper coreand the stainless steel conductor may be heated to a softeningtemperature in vacuum. At the softening temperature, the stainless steelconductor may be drawn over the copper core to form a tight fit. Thestainless steel conductor and copper core may then be cooled to form acomposite electrical conductor with the stainless steel surrounding thecopper core.

In some embodiments, a long, composite electrical conductor may beformed from several sections of composite electrical conductor. Thesections of composite electrical conductor may be formed by a billetcoextrusion process. The sections of composite electrical conductor maybe coupled together using a welding process. FIGS. 86, 87, and 88 depictembodiments of coupled sections of composite electrical conductors. InFIG. 86, core 814 extends beyond the ends of inner conductor 790 in eachsection of a composite electrical conductor. In an embodiment, core 814is copper and inner conductor 790 is 446 stainless steel. Cores 814 fromeach section of the composite electrical conductor may be coupledtogether by, for example, brazing the core ends together. Core couplingmaterial 816 may couple the core ends together, as shown in FIG. 86.Core coupling material 816 may be, for example Everdur, a copper-siliconalloy material (e.g., an alloy with about 3% by weight silicon incopper).

Inner conductor coupling material 818 may couple inner conductors 790from each section of the composite electrical conductor. Inner conductorcoupling material 818 may be material used for welding sections of innerconductor 790 together. In certain embodiments, inner conductor couplingmaterial 818 may be used for welding stainless steel inner conductorsections together. In some embodiments, inner conductor couplingmaterial 818 is 304 stainless steel or 310 stainless steel. A thirdmaterial (e.g., 309 stainless steel) may be used to couple innerconductor coupling material 818 to ends of inner conductor 790. Thethird material may be needed or desired to produce a better bond (e.g.,a better weld) between inner conductor 790 and inner conductor couplingmaterial 818. The third material may be non-magnetic to reduce thepotential for a hot spot to occur at the coupling.

In certain embodiments, inner conductor coupling material 818 maysurround the ends of cores 814 that protrude beyond the ends of innerconductors 790, as shown in FIG. 86. Inner conductor coupling material818 may include one or more portions coupled together. Inner conductorcoupling material 818 may be placed in a clam shell configuration aroundthe ends of cores 814 that protrude beyond the ends of inner conductors790, as shown in the end view depicted in FIG. 87. Coupling material 820may be used to couple together portions (e.g., halves) of innerconductor coupling material 818. Coupling material 820 may be the samematerial as inner conductor coupling material 818 or another materialsuitable for coupling together portions of the inner conductor couplingmaterial.

In some embodiments, a composite electrical conductor may include innerconductor coupling material 818 with 304 stainless steel or 310stainless steel and inner conductor 790 with 446 stainless steel oranother ferromagnetic material. In such an embodiment, inner conductorcoupling material 818 may produce significantly less heat than innerconductor 790. The portions of the composite electrical conductor thatinclude the inner conductor coupling material (e.g., the welded portionsor “joints” of the composite electrical conductor) may remain at lowertemperatures than adjacent material during application of appliedelectrical current to the composite electrical conductor. Thereliability and durability of the composite electrical conductor may beincreased by keeping the joints of the composite electrical conductor atlower temperatures.

FIG. 88 depicts an embodiment for coupling together sections of acomposite electrical conductor. Ends of cores 814 and ends of innerconductors 790 are beveled to facilitate coupling together the sectionsof the composite electrical conductor. Core coupling material 816 maycouple (e.g., braze) together the ends of each core 814. The ends ofeach inner conductor 790 may be coupled (e.g., welded) together withinner conductor coupling material 818. Inner conductor coupling material818 may be 309 stainless steel or another suitable welding material. Insome embodiments, inner conductor coupling material 818 is 309 stainlesssteel. 309 stainless steel may reliably weld to both an inner conductorhaving 446 stainless steel and a core having copper. Using beveled endswhen coupling together sections of a composite electrical conductor mayproduce a reliable and durable coupling between the sections ofcomposite electrical conductor. FIG. 88 depicts a weld formed betweenends of sections that have beveled surfaces.

A composite electrical conductor may be used as a conductor in anyelectrical heater embodiment described herein. In an embodiment, acomposite electrical conductor may be used as a conductor in aconductor-in-conduit heater. For example, a composite electricalconductor may be used as conductor 822 in FIGS. 89 and 90.

FIG. 89 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aconductor-in-conduit heat source. Conductor 822 may be disposed inconduit 824. Conductor 822 may be a rod or conduit of electricallyconductive material. Low resistance sections 826 may be present at bothends of conductor 822 to generate less heating in these sections. Lowresistance section 826 may be formed by having a greater cross-sectionalarea of conductor 822 in that section, or the sections may be made ofmaterial having less resistance. In certain embodiments, low resistancesection 826 includes a low resistance conductor coupled to conductor822.

Conduit 824 may be made of an electrically conductive material. Conduit824 may be disposed in opening 640 in hydrocarbon layer 556. Opening 640has a diameter able to accommodate conduit 824.

Conductor 822 may be centered in conduit 824 by centralizers 828.Centralizers 828 may electrically isolate conductor 822 from conduit824. Centralizers 828 may inhibit movement and properly locate conductor822 within conduit 824. Centralizers 828 may be made of a ceramicmaterial or a combination of ceramic and metallic materials.Centralizers 828 may inhibit deformation of conductor 822 in conduit824. Centralizers 828 may be spaced at intervals between approximately0.1 m and approximately 3 m along conductor 822.

A second low resistance section 826 of conductor 822 may coupleconductor 822 to wellhead 830, as depicted in FIG. 89. Electricalcurrent may be applied to conductor 822 from power cable 832 through lowresistance section 826 of conductor 822. Electrical current may passfrom conductor 822 through sliding connector 834 to conduit 824. Conduit824 may be electrically insulated from overburden casing 836 and fromwellhead 830 to return electrical current to power cable 832. Heat maybe generated in conductor 822 and conduit 824. The generated heat mayradiate within conduit 824 and opening 640 to heat at least a portion ofhydrocarbon layer 556.

Overburden casing 836 may be disposed in overburden 560. Overburdencasing 836 may, in some embodiments, be surrounded by materials thatinhibit heating of overburden 560. Low resistance section 826 ofconductor 822 may be placed in overburden casing 836. Low resistancesection 826 of conductor 822 may be made of, for example, carbon steel.Low resistance section 826 of conductor 822 may be centralized withinoverburden casing 836 using centralizers 828. Centralizers 828 may bespaced at intervals of approximately 6 m to approximately 12 m or, forexample, approximately 9 m along low resistance section 826 of conductor822. In a heat source embodiment, low resistance section 826 ofconductor 822 is coupled to conductor 822 by a weld or welds. In otherheat source embodiments, low resistance sections may be threaded,threaded and welded, or otherwise coupled to the conductor. Lowresistance section 826 may generate little and/or no heat in overburdencasing 836. Packing material 838 may be placed between overburden casing836 and opening 640. Packing material 838 may inhibit fluid from flowingfrom opening 640 to surface 840.

FIG. 90 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of aremovable conductor-in-conduit heat source. Conduit 824 may be placed inopening 640 through overburden 560 such that a gap remains between theconduit and overburden casing 836. Fluids may be removed from opening640 through the gap between conduit 824 and overburden casing 836.Fluids may be removed from the gap through conduit 842. Conduit 824 andcomponents of the heat source included within the conduit that arecoupled to wellhead 830 may be removed from opening 640 as a singleunit. The heat source may be removed as a single unit to be repaired,replaced, and/or used in another portion of the formation.

In certain embodiments, a composite electrical conductor may be used asa conductor in an insulated conductor heater. FIG. 91A and FIG. 91Bdepicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor heater. Insulatedconductor 844 may include core 814 and inner conductor 790. Core 814 andinner conductor 790 may be a composite electrical conductor. Core 814and inner conductor 790 may be located within insulator 792. Core 814,inner conductor 790, and insulator 792 may be located inside outerconductor 794. Insulator 792 may be magnesium oxide or another suitableelectrical insulator. Outer conductor 794 may be copper, steel, or anyother electrical conductor.

In some embodiments, insulator 792 may be an insulator with a preformedshape. A composite electrical conductor having core 814 and innerconductor 790 may be placed inside the preformed insulator. Outerconductor 794 may be placed over insulator 792 by coupling (e.g., bywelding or brazing) one or more longitudinal strips of electricalconductor together to form the outer conductor. The longitudinal stripsmay be placed over insulator 792 in a “cigar wrap” method to couple thestrips in a widthwise or radial direction (i.e., placing individualstrips around the circumference of the insulator and coupling theindividual strips to surround the insulator). The lengthwise ends of thecigar wrapped strips may be coupled to lengthwise ends of other cigarwrapped strips to couple the strips lengthwise along the insulatedconductor.

In some embodiments, jacket 800 may be located outside outer conductor794, as shown in FIG. 92A and FIG. 92B. In some embodiments, jacket 800may be stainless steel (e.g., 304 stainless steel) and outer conductor794 may be copper. Jacket 800 may provide corrosion resistance for theinsulated conductor heater. In some embodiments, jacket 800 and outerconductor 794 may be preformed strips that are drawn over insulator 792to form insulated conductor 844.

In certain embodiments, insulated conductor 844 may be located in aconduit that provides protection (e.g., corrosion and degradationprotection) for the insulated conductor. FIG. 93 depicts an embodimentof an insulated conductor located inside a conduit. In FIG. 93,insulated conductor 844 is located inside conduit 824 with gap 848separating the insulated conductor from the conduit.

In some embodiments, a composite electrical conductor may be used toachieve lower temperature heating (e.g., for heating fluids in aproduction well, heating a surface pipeline, or reducing the viscosityof fluids in a wellbore or near wellbore region). Varying the materialsof the composite electrical conductor may be used to allow for lowertemperature heating. In some embodiments, inner conductor 790 (as shownin FIGS. 86-93) may be made of materials with a lower Curie temperaturethan that of 446 stainless steel. For example, inner conductor 790 maybe an alloy of iron and nickel. The alloy may have between about 30% byweight and about 42% by weight nickel with the rest being iron (e.g., anickel/iron alloy such as Invar 36, which is about 36% by weight nickelin iron and has a Curie temperature of about 277° C.). In someembodiments, an alloy may be a three component alloy with, for example,chromium, nickel, and iron. For example, an alloy may have about 6% byweight chromium, 42% by weight nickel, and 52% by weight iron. An innerconductor made of these types of alloys may provide a heat outputbetween about 250 watts per meter and about 350 watts per meter (e.g.,about 300 watts per meter). A 2.5 cm diameter rod of Invar 36 has aturndown ratio of about 2 to 1 at the Curie temperature. Placing theInvar 36 alloy over a copper core may allow for a smaller rod diameter(e.g., less than 2.5 cm). A copper core may result in a high turndownratio (e.g., greater than about 2 to 1). Insulator 792 may be made of ahigh performance polymer insulator (e.g., PFA, PEEK) when used withalloys with a low Curie temperature (e.g., Invar 36) that is below themelting point or softening point of the polymer insulator.

For temperature limited heaters that include a copper core or coppercladding, the copper may be protected with a relativelydiffusion-resistant layer (e.g., nickel). In some embodiments, acomposite inner conductor may include iron clad over nickel clad over acopper core. The relatively diffusion-resistant layer may inhibitmigration of copper into other layers of the heater including, forexample, an insulation layer. In some embodiments, the relativelyimpermeable layer may inhibit deposition of copper in a wellbore duringinstallation of the heater into the wellbore.

In one heater embodiment, an inner conductor may be a 1.9 cm diameteriron rod, an insulating layer may be 0.25 cm thick magnesium oxide, andan outer conductor may be 0.635 cm thick 347H or 347HH stainless steel.The heater may be energized at line frequency (e.g., 60 Hz) from asubstantially constant current source. Stainless steel may be chosen forcorrosion resistance in the gaseous subsurface environment and/or forsuperior creep resistance at elevated temperatures. Below the Curietemperature, heat may be produced primarily in the iron inner conductor.With a heat injection rate of about 820 watts/meter, the temperaturedifferential across the insulating layer may be approximately 40° C.Thus, the temperature of the outer conductor may be about 40° C. coolerthan the temperature of the inner ferromagnetic conductor.

In another heater embodiment, an inner conductor may be a 1.9 cmdiameter rod of copper or copper alloy such as LOHM (about 94% copperand 6% nickel by weight), an insulating layer may be transparent quartzsand, and an outer conductor may be 0.635 cm thick 1% carbon steel cladwith 0.25 cm thick 310 stainless steel. The carbon steel in the outerconductor may be clad with copper between the carbon steel and thestainless steel jacket. The copper cladding may reduce a thickness ofcarbon steel needed to achieve substantial resistance changes near theCurie temperature. Heat may be produced primarily in the ferromagneticouter conductor, resulting in a small temperature differential acrossthe insulating layer. When heat is produced primarily in the outerconductor, a lower thermal conductivity material may be chosen for theinsulation. Copper or copper alloy may be chosen for the inner conductorto reduce the heat output from the inner conductor. The inner conductormay also be made of other metals that exhibit low electrical resistivityand relative magnetic permeabilities near 1 (i.e., substantiallynon-ferromagnetic materials such as aluminum and aluminum alloys,phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, and/or brass).

In some embodiments, a temperature limited heater may be aconductor-in-conduit heater. Ceramic insulators or centralizers may bepositioned on the inner conductor. The inner conductor may make slidingelectrical contact with the outer conduit in a sliding connectorsection. The sliding connector section may be located at or near thebottom of the heater.

FIG. 94 depicts an embodiment of a sliding connector. Sliding connector834 may be coupled near an end of conductor 822. Sliding connector 834may be positioned near a bottom end of conduit 824. Sliding connector834 may electrically couple conductor 822 to conduit 824. Slidingconnector 834 may move during use to accommodate thermal expansionand/or contraction of conductor 822 and conduit 824 relative to eachother. In some embodiments, sliding connector 834 may be attached to lowresistance section 826 of conductor 822. The lower resistance of lowresistance section 826 may allow the sliding connector to be at atemperature that does not exceed about 90° C. Maintaining slidingconnector 834 at a relatively low temperature may inhibit corrosion ofthe sliding connector and promote good contact between the slidingconnector and conduit 824.

Sliding connector 834 may include scraper 850. Scraper 850 may abut aninner surface of conduit 824 at point 852. Scraper 850 may include anymetal or electrically conducting material (e.g., steel or stainlesssteel). Centralizer 854 may couple to conductor 822. In someembodiments, sliding connector 834 may be positioned on low resistancesection 826 of conductor 822. Centralizer 854 may include anyelectrically conducting material (e.g., a metal or metal alloy). Springbow 856 may couple scraper 850 to centralizer 854. Spring bow 856 mayinclude any metal or electrically conducting material (e.g.,copper-beryllium alloy). In some embodiments, centralizer 854, springbow 856, and/or scraper 850 are welded together.

More than one sliding connector 834 may be used for redundancy and toreduce the current through each scraper 850. In addition, a thickness ofconduit 824 may be increased for a length adjacent to sliding connector834 to reduce heat generated in that portion of conduit. The length ofconduit 824 with increased thickness may be, for example, approximately6 m. In certain embodiments, electrical contact may be made betweencentralizer 854 and scraper 850 (shown in FIG. 94) on sliding connector834 using an electrical conductor (e.g., a copper wire) that has a lowerelectrical resistance than spring bow 856. Electrical current may flowthrough the electrical conductor rather than spring bow 856 so that thespring bow has a longer lifetime.

In certain embodiments, centralizers (e.g., centralizers 828 depicted inFIGS. 89 and 90) may be made of silicon nitride (Si₃N₄). In someembodiments, silicon nitride may be gas pressure sintered reactionbonded silicon nitride. Gas pressure sintered reaction bonded siliconnitride can be made by sintering the silicon nitride at about 1800° C.in a 1,500 psi (10.3 MPa) nitrogen atmosphere to inhibit degradation ofthe silicon nitride during sintering. One example of a gas pressuresintered reaction bonded silicon nitride may be obtained from Ceradyne,Inc. (Costa Mesa, Calif.) as Ceralloy® 147-31N. Gas pressure sinteredreaction bonded silicon nitride may be ground to a fine finish. The finefinish (i.e., very low surface porosity of the silicon nitride) mayallow the silicon nitride to slide easily along metal surfaces andwithout picking up metal particles from the surfaces. Gas pressuresintered reaction bonded silicon nitride is a very dense material withhigh tensile strength, high flexural mechanical strength, and highthermal impact stress characteristics. Gas pressure sintered reactionbonded silicon nitride is an excellent high temperature electricalinsulator. Gas pressure sintered reaction bonded silicon nitride hasabout the same leakage current at about 900° C. as alumina (Al₂O₃) atabout 760° C. Gas pressure sintered reaction bonded silicon nitride hasa thermal conductivity of about 25 watts per meter·° K. The relativelyhigh thermal conductivity may promote heat transfer away from the centerconductor of a conductor-in-conduit heater.

Other types of silicon nitride such as, but not limited to,reaction-bonded silicon nitride or hot isostatically pressed siliconnitride may be used. Hot isostatic pressing may include sinteringgranular silicon nitride and additives at 15,000-30,000 psi (about100-200 MPa) in nitrogen gas. Some silicon nitrides may be made bysintering silicon nitride with yttrium oxide or cerium oxide to lowerthe sintering temperature so that the silicon nitride does not degrade(e.g., release nitrogen) during sintering. However, adding othermaterial to the silicon nitride may increase the leakage current of thesilicon nitride at elevated temperatures compared to purer forms ofsilicon nitride.

FIG. 95 depicts data of leakage current measurements versus voltage foralumina and silicon nitride centralizers at selected temperatures. Theleakage current measurements were taken between a conductor and aconduit in a 3 foot (0.91 m) conductor-in-conduit section with twocentralizers. The conductor-in-conduit was placed horizontally in afurnace. Plot 858 depicts data for alumina centralizers at a temperatureof 760° C. Plot 860 depicts data for alumina centralizers at atemperature of 815° C. Plot 862 depicts data for gas pressure sinteredreaction bonded silicon nitride centralizers at a temperature of 760° C.Plot 864 depicts data for gas pressure sintered reaction bonded siliconnitride at a temperature of 871° C. FIG. 95 shows that the leakagecurrent of alumina substantially increases from a temperature of 760° C.to a temperature of 815° C. while the leakage current of gas pressuresintered reaction bonded silicon nitride remains relatively low fromtemperatures of 760° C. to a temperature of about 871° C.

FIG. 96 depicts leakage current measurements versus temperature for twodifferent types of silicon nitride. Plot 866 depicts leakage currentversus temperature for highly polished, gas pressure sintered reactionbonded silicon nitride. Plot 868 depicts leakage current versustemperature for doped densified silicon nitride. FIG. 96 shows theimproved leakage current versus temperature characteristics of gaspressure sintered reaction bonded silicon nitride versus doped siliconnitride.

Using silicon nitride centralizers may allow for smaller diameter andhigher temperature heaters. A smaller gap may be needed between aconductor and a conduit because of the excellent electricalcharacteristics of the silicon nitride (e.g., low leakage current athigh temperatures). Silicon nitride centralizers may allow higheroperating voltages (e.g., up to at least about 2500 V) to be used inheaters due to the electrical characteristics of the silicon nitride.Operating at higher voltages may allow longer length heaters to beutilized (e.g., at lengths up to at least about 1500 m at about 2500 V).

FIG. 97 depicts an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit temperaturelimited heater. Conductor 822 may be coupled (e.g., cladded, coextruded,press fit, drawn inside) to ferromagnetic conductor 812. In someembodiments, ferromagnetic conductor 812 may be billet coextruded overconductor 822. Ferromagnetic conductor 812 may be coupled to the outsideof conductor 822 so that alternating current propagates only through theskin depth of the ferromagnetic conductor at room temperature.Ferromagnetic conductor 812 may provide mechanical support for conductor822 at elevated temperatures. Ferromagnetic conductor 812 may be iron,an iron alloy (e.g., iron with about 10% to about 27% by weight chromiumfor corrosion resistance and lower Curie temperature (e.g., 446stainless steel)), or any other ferromagnetic material. In anembodiment, conductor 822 is copper and ferromagnetic conductor 812 is446 stainless steel.

Conductor 822 and ferromagnetic conductor 812 may be electricallycoupled to conduit 824 with sliding connector 834. Conduit 824 may be anon-ferromagnetic material such as, but not limited to, 347H stainlesssteel. In one embodiment, conduit 824 is a 1½″ Schedule 80 347Hstainless steel pipe. One or more centralizers 870 may maintain the gapbetween conduit 824 and ferromagnetic conductor 812. In an embodiment,centralizer 870 is made of gas pressure sintered reaction bonded siliconnitride. Centralizer 870 may be held in position on ferromagneticconductor 812 by one or more weld tabs located on the ferromagneticconductor.

In certain embodiments, a conductor-in-conduit temperature limitedheater may be used in lower temperature applications by using lowerCurie temperature ferromagnetic materials. For example, a lower Curietemperature ferromagnetic material may be used for heating inside suckerpump rods. Heating sucker pump rods may be useful to lower the viscosityof fluids in the sucker pump or rod and/or to maintain a lower viscosityof fluids in the sucker pump rod. Lowering the viscosity of the oil mayinhibit sticking of a pump used to pump the fluids. Fluids in the suckerpump rod may be heated up to temperatures less than about 250° C. orless than about 300° C. Temperatures need to be maintained below thesevalues to inhibit coking of hydrocarbon fluids in the sucker pumpsystem.

For lower temperature applications, ferromagnetic conductor 812 in FIG.97 may be alloy 42-6 coupled to conductor 822. Conductor 822 may becopper. In one embodiment, ferromagnetic conductor 812 may be 1.9 cmoutside diameter alloy 42-6 over copper conductor 822 with a 2:1 outsidediameter to copper diameter ratio. In some embodiments, ferromagneticconductor 812 may include other lower temperature ferromagneticmaterials such as alloy 32, Invar 36, iron-nickel-chromium alloys,iron-nickel alloys, nickel alloys, or nickel-chromium alloys. Conduit824 may be a hollow sucker rod made from carbon steel. The carbon steelor other material used in conduit 824 may confine alternating current tothe inside of the conduit to inhibit stray voltages at the surface ofthe formation. Centralizer 870 may be made from gas pressure sinteredreaction bonded silicon nitride. In some embodiments, centralizer 870may be made from polymers such as PFA or PEEK. In certain embodiments,polymer insulation may be clad along an entire length of the heater.

FIG. 98 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater with a lowtemperature ferromagnetic outer conductor. Outer conductor 794 may beglass sealing alloy 42-6 (about 42.5% by weight nickel, about 5.75% byweight chromium, and the remainder iron). Alloy 42-6 has a relativelylow Curie temperature of about 295° C. Alloy 42-6 may be obtained fromCarpenter Metals (Reading, Pa.) or Anomet Products, Inc. In someembodiments, outer conductor 794 may include other compositions and/ormaterials to get various Curie temperatures (e.g., Carpenter TemperatureCompensator “32” (Curie temperature of about 199° C.; available fromCarpenter Metals) or Invar 36). In an embodiment, conductive layer 798is coupled (e.g., cladded, welded, or brazed) to outer conductor 794.Conductive layer 798 may be a copper layer. Conductive layer 798 mayimprove a turndown ratio of outer conductor 794. Jacket 800 may be aferromagnetic metal such as carbon steel. Jacket 800 may protect outerconductor 794 from a corrosive environment. Inner conductor 790 may haveelectrical insulator 792. Electrical insulator 792 may be a mica tapewinding with overlaid fiberglass braid. In an embodiment, innerconductor 790 and electrical insulator 792 are a 4/0 MGT-1000 furnacecable or 3/0 MGT-1000 furnace cable. 4/0 MGT-1000 furnace cable or 3/0MGT-1000 furnace cable is available from Allied Wire and Cable(Phoenixville, Pa.). In some embodiments, a protective braid (e.g.,stainless steel braid) may be placed over electrical insulator 792.

Conductive section 796 may electrically couple inner conductor 790 toouter conductor 794 and/or jacket 800. In some embodiments, jacket 800may touch or electrically contact conductive layer 798 (e.g., if theheater is placed in a horizontal configuration). If jacket 800 is aferromagnetic metal such as carbon steel (with a Curie temperature abovethe Curie temperature of outer conductor 794), current will propagateonly on the inside of the jacket. Thus, the outside of the jacketremains electrically safe during operation. In some embodiments, jacket800 may be drawn down (e.g., swaged down in a die) onto conductive layer798 so that a tight fit is made between the jacket and the conductivelayer. The heater may be spooled as coiled tubing for insertion into awellbore. In other embodiments, an annular space may be present betweenconductive layer 798 and jacket 800, as depicted in FIG. 98.

FIG. 99 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limitedconductor-in-conduit heater. Conduit 824 may be a hollow sucker rod madeof a ferromagnetic metal such as alloy 42-6, alloy 32, Invar 36,iron-nickel-chromium alloys, iron-nickel alloys, nickel alloys, ornickel-chromium alloys. Inner conductor 790 may have electricalinsulator 792. Electrical insulator 792 may be a mica tape winding withoverlaid fiberglass braid. In an embodiment, inner conductor 790 andelectrical insulator 792 are a 4/0 MGT-1000 furnace cable or 3/0MGT-1000 furnace cable. In some embodiments, polymer insulations may beused for lower temperature Curie heaters. In certain embodiments, aprotective braid (e.g., stainless steel braid) may be placed overelectrical insulator 792. Conduit 824 may have a wall thickness that isgreater than the skin depth at the Curie temperature (e.g., about 2 to 3times the skin depth at the Curie temperature). In some embodiments, amore conductive conductor may be coupled to conduit 824 to increase theturndown ratio of the heater.

FIG. 100 depicts an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit temperaturelimited heater. Conductor 822 may be coupled (e.g., cladded, coextruded,press fit, drawn inside) to ferromagnetic conductor 812. A metallurgicalbond between conductor 822 and ferromagnetic conductor 812 may befavorable. Ferromagnetic conductor 812 may be coupled to the outside ofconductor 822 so that alternating current propagates through the skindepth of the ferromagnetic conductor at room temperature. Conductor 822may provide mechanical support for ferromagnetic conductor 812 atelevated temperatures. Ferromagnetic conductor 812 may be iron, an ironalloy (e.g., iron with about 10% to about 27% by weight chromium forcorrosion resistance (446 stainless steel)), or any other ferromagneticmaterial. In one embodiment, conductor 822 is 304 stainless steel andferromagnetic conductor 812 is 446 stainless steel. Conductor 822 andferromagnetic conductor 812 may be electrically coupled to conduit 824with sliding connector 834. Conduit 824 may be a non-ferromagneticmaterial such as austentitic stainless steel.

FIG. 101 depicts an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit temperaturelimited heater. Conduit 824 may be coupled to ferromagnetic conductor812 (e.g., cladded, press fit, or drawn inside of the ferromagneticconductor). Ferromagnetic conductor 812 may be coupled to the inside ofconduit 824 to allow alternating current to propagate through the skindepth of the ferromagnetic conductor at room temperature. Conduit 824may provide mechanical support for ferromagnetic conductor 812 atelevated temperatures. Conduit 824 and ferromagnetic conductor 812 maybe electrically coupled to conductor 822 with sliding connector 834.

FIG. 102 depicts an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit temperaturelimited heater with an insulated conductor. Insulated conductor 844 mayinclude core 814, electrical insulator 792, and jacket 800. Jacket 800may be made of a corrosion resistant material (e.g., stainless steel).Endcap 806 may be placed at an end of insulated conductor 844 to couplecore 814 to sliding connector 834. Endcap 806 may be made ofnon-corrosive, electrically conducting materials such as nickel orstainless steel. Endcap 806 may be coupled to the end of insulatedconductor 844 by any suitable method (e.g., welding, soldering,braising). Sliding connector 834 may electrically couple core 814 andendcap 806 to ferromagnetic conductor 812. Conduit 824 may providesupport for ferromagnetic conductor 812 at elevated temperatures.

FIG. 103 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor-in-conduittemperature limited heater. Insulated conductor 844 may include core814, electrical insulator 792, and jacket 800. Insulated conductor 844may be coupled to ferromagnetic conductor 812 with connector 872.Connector 872 may be made of non-corrosive, electrically conductingmaterials such as nickel or stainless steel. Connector 872 may becoupled to insulated conductor 844 and coupled to ferromagneticconductor 812 using suitable methods for electrically coupling (e.g.,welding, soldering, braising). Insulated conductor 844 may be placedalong a wall of ferromagnetic conductor 812. Insulated conductor 844 mayprovide mechanical support for ferromagnetic conductor 812 at elevatedtemperatures. In some embodiments, other structures (e.g., a conduit)may be used to provide mechanical support for ferromagnetic conductor812.

FIG. 104 depicts an embodiment of an insulated conductor-in-conduittemperature limited heater. Insulated conductor 844 may be coupled toendcap 806. Endcap 806 may be coupled to coupling 874. Coupling 874 mayelectrically couple insulated conductor 844 to ferromagnetic conductor812. Coupling 874 may be a flexible coupling. For example, coupling 874may include flexible materials (e.g., braided wire). Coupling 874 may bemade of non-corrosive materials such as nickel, stainless steel, and/orcopper.

FIG. 105 depicts an embodiment of a conductor-in-conduit temperaturelimited heater with an insulated conductor. Insulated conductor 844 mayinclude core 814, electrical insulator 792, and jacket 800. Jacket 800may be made of a highly electrically conductive material (e.g., copper).Core 814 may be made of a lower temperature ferromagnetic material suchas such as alloy 42-6, alloy 32, Invar 36, iron-nickel-chromium alloys,iron-nickel alloys, nickel alloys, or nickel-chromium alloys. In certainembodiments, the materials of jacket 800 and core 814 may be reversed sothat the jacket is the ferromagnetic conductor and the core is thehighly conductive portion of the heater. Ferromagnetic material used injacket 800 or core 814 may have a thickness greater than the skin depthat the Curie temperature (e.g., about 2 to 3 times the skin depth at theCurie temperature). Endcap 806 may be placed at an end of insulatedconductor 844 to couple core 814 to sliding connector 834. Endcap 806may be made of non-corrosive, electrically conducting materials such asnickel or stainless steel. Conduit 824 may be a hollow sucker rod madefrom, for example, carbon steel.

FIGS. 106 and 107 depict cross-sectional views of an embodiment of atemperature limited heater that includes an insulated conductor. FIG.106 depicts a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of an overburdensection of the temperature limited heater. The overburden section mayinclude insulated conductor 844 placed in conduit 824. Conduit 824 maybe 1¼″ Schedule 80 carbon steel pipe internally clad with copper in theoverburden section. Insulated conductor 844 may be a mineral insulatedcable or polymer insulated cable. Conductive layer 798 may be placed inthe annulus between insulated conductor 844 and conduit 824. Conductivelayer 798 may be approximately 2.5 cm diameter copper tubing. Theoverburden section may be coupled to the heating section of the heater.FIG. 107 depicts a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of a heatingsection of the temperature limited heater. Insulated conductor 844 inthe heating section may be a continuous portion of insulated conductor844 in the overburden section. Ferromagnetic conductor 812 may becoupled to conductive layer 798. In certain embodiments, conductivelayer 798 in the heating section may be copper drawn over ferromagneticconductor 812 and coupled to conductive layer 798 in overburden section.Conduit 824 may include a heating section and an overburden section.These two sections may be coupled together to form conduit 824. Theheating section may be 1¼″ Schedule 80 347H stainless steel pipe. An endcap, or other suitable electrical connector, may couple ferromagneticconductor 812 to insulated conductor 844 at a lower end of the heater(i.e., the end farthest from the overburden section).

FIGS. 108 and 109 depict cross-sectional views of an embodiment of atemperature limited heater that includes an insulated conductor. FIG.108 depicts a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of an overburdensection of the temperature limited heater. Insulated conductor 844 mayinclude core 814, electrical insulator 792, and jacket 800. Insulatedconductor 844 may have a diameter of about 1.5 cm. Core 814 may becopper. Electrical insulator 792 may be magnesium oxide. Jacket 800 maybe copper in the overburden section to reduce heat losses. Conduit 824may be 1″ Schedule 40 carbon steel in the overburden section. Conductivelayer 798 may be coupled to conduit 824. Conductive layer 798 may becopper with a thickness of about 0.2 cm to reduce heat losses in theoverburden section. Gap 848 may be an annular space between insulatedconductor 844 and conduit 824. FIG. 109 depicts a cross-sectional viewof an embodiment of a heating section of the temperature limited heater.Insulated conductor 844 in the heating section may be coupled toinsulated conductor 844 in the overburden section. Jacket 800 in theheating section may be made of a corrosion resistant material (e.g., 825stainless steel). Ferromagnetic conductor 812 may be coupled to conduit824 in the overburden section. Ferromagnetic conductor 812 may beSchedule 160 409, 410, or 446 stainless steel pipe. Gap 848 may bebetween ferromagnetic conductor 812 and insulated conductor 844. An endcap, or other suitable electrical connector, may couple ferromagneticconductor 812 to insulated conductor 844 at a distal end of the heater(i.e., the end farthest from the overburden section).

In certain embodiments, a temperature limited heater may include aflexible cable (e.g., a furnace cable) as the inner conductor. Forexample, the inner conductor may be a 27% nickel-clad or stainlesssteel-clad stranded copper wire with four layers of mica tape surroundedby a layer of ceramic and/or mineral fiber (e.g., alumina fiber,aluminosilicate fiber, borosilicate fiber, or aluminoborosilicatefiber). A stainless steel-clad stranded copper wire furnace cable may beavailable from Anomet Products, Inc. (Shrewsbury, Mass.). The innerconductor may be rated for applications at temperatures of 1000° C. orhigher. The inner conductor may be pulled inside a conduit. The conduitmay be a ferromagnetic conduit (e.g., a ¾″ Schedule 80 446 stainlesssteel pipe). The conduit may be covered with a layer of copper, or otherelectrical conductor, with a thickness of about 0.3 cm or any othersuitable thickness. The assembly may be placed inside a support conduit(e.g., a 1¼″ Schedule 80 347H or 347HH stainless steel tubular). Thesupport conduit may provide additional creep-rupture strength andprotection for the copper and the inner conductor. For uses attemperatures greater than about 1000° C., the inner copper conductor maybe plated with a more corrosion resistant alloy (e.g., Incoloy® 825) toinhibit oxidation. In some embodiments, the top of the temperaturelimited heater may be sealed to inhibit air from contacting the innerconductor.

In some embodiments, a ferromagnetic conductor of a temperature limitedheater may include a copper core (e.g., a 1.27 cm diameter copper core)placed inside a first steel conduit (e.g., a ½″ Schedule 80 347H or347HH stainless steel pipe). A second steel conduit (e.g., a 1″ Schedule80 446 stainless steel pipe) may be drawn down over the first steelconduit assembly. The first steel conduit may provide strength and creepresistance while the copper core may provide a high turndown ratio.

In some embodiments, a ferromagnetic conductor of a temperature limitedheater (e.g., a center or inner conductor of a conductor-in-conduittemperature limited heater) may include a heavy walled conduit (e.g., anextra heavy wall 410 stainless steel pipe). The heavy walled conduit mayhave a diameter of about 2.5 cm. The heavy walled conduit may be drawndown over a copper rod. The copper rod may have a diameter of about 1.3cm. The resulting heater may include a thick ferromagnetic sheath (i.e.,the heavy walled conduit with, for example, about a 2.6 cm outsidediameter after drawing) containing the copper rod. The heater may have aturndown ratio of about 8:1. The thickness of the heavy walled conduitmay be selected to inhibit deformation of the heater. A thickferromagnetic conduit may provide deformation resistance while addingminimal expense to the cost of the heater.

In another embodiment, a temperature limited heater may include asubstantially U-shaped heater with a ferromagnetic cladding over anon-ferromagnetic core (in this context, the “U” may have a curved or,alternatively, orthogonal shape). A U-shaped, or hairpin, heater mayhave insulating support mechanisms (e.g., polymer or ceramic spacers)that inhibit the two legs of the hairpin from electrically shorting toeach other. In some embodiments, a hairpin heater may be installed in acasing (e.g., an environmental protection casing). The insulators mayinhibit electrical shorting to the casing and may facilitateinstallation of the heater in the casing. The cross section of thehairpin heater may be, but is not limited to, circular, elliptical,square, or rectangular.

FIG. 110 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater with ahairpin inner conductor. Inner conductor 790 may be placed in a hairpinconfiguration with two legs coupled by a substantially U-shaped sectionat or near the bottom of the heater. Current may enter inner conductor790 through one leg and exit through the other leg. Inner conductor 790may be, but is not limited to, ferritic stainless steel, carbon steel,or iron. Core 814 may be placed inside inner conductor 790. In certainembodiments, inner conductor 790 may be cladded to core 814. Core 814may be a copper rod. The legs of the heater may be insulated from eachother and from casing 876 by spacers 878. Spacers 878 may be aluminaspacers (e.g., about 90% to about 99.8% alumina) or silicon nitridespacers. Weld beads or other protrusions may be placed on innerconductor 790 to maintain a location of spacers 878 on the innerconductor. In some embodiments, spacers 878 may include two sectionsthat are fastened together around inner conductor 790. Casing 876 may bean environmentally protective casing made of, for example, stainlesssteel.

In certain embodiments, a temperature limited heater may incorporatecurves, bends or waves in a relatively straight heater to allow thermalexpansion and contraction of the heater without overstressing materialsin the heater. When a cool heater is heated or a hot heater is cooled,the heater expands or contracts in proportion to the change intemperature and the coefficient of thermal expansion of materials in theheater. For long straight heaters that undergo wide variations intemperature during use and are fixed at more than one point in thewellbore (e.g., due to mechanical deformation of the wellbore), theexpansion or contraction may cause the heater to bend, kink, and/or pullapart. Use of an “S” bend or other curves, bends, or waves in the heaterat intervals in the heated length may provide a spring effect and allowthe heater to expand or contract more gently so that the heater does notbend, kink, or pull apart.

A 310 stainless steel heater subjected to about 500° C. temperaturechange may shrink/grow approximately 0.85% of the length of the heaterwith this temperature change. Thus, a length of about 3 m of a heaterwould contract about 2.6 cm when it cools through 500° C. If a longheater were affixed at about 3 m intervals, such a change in lengthcould stretch and, possibly, break the heater. FIG. 111 depicts anembodiment of an “S” bend in a heater. The additional material in the“S” bend may allow for thermal contraction or expansion of heater 880without damage to the heater.

In some embodiments, a temperature limited heater may include a sandwichconstruction with both current supply and current return paths separatedby an insulator. The sandwich heater may include two outer layers ofconductor, two inner layers of ferromagnetic material, and a layer ofinsulator between the ferromagnetic layers. The cross-sectionaldimensions of the heater may be optimized for mechanical flexibility andspoolability. The sandwich heater may be formed as a bimetallic stripthat is bent back upon itself. The sandwich heater may be inserted in acasing, such as an environmental protection casing. The sandwich heatermay be separated from the casing with an electrical insulator.

A heater may include a section that passes through an overburden. Insome embodiments, the portion of the heater in the overburden may notneed to supply as much heat as a portion of the heater adjacent tohydrocarbon layers that are to be subjected to in situ conversion. Incertain embodiments, a substantially non-heating section of a heater mayhave limited or no heat output. A substantially non-heating section of aheater may be located adjacent to layers of the formation (e.g., rocklayers, non-hydrocarbon layers, or lean layers) that remainadvantageously unheated. A substantially non-heating section of a heatermay include a copper conductor instead of a ferromagnetic conductor. Insome embodiments, a substantially non-heating section of a heater mayinclude a copper or copper alloy inner conductor. A substantiallynon-heating section may also include a copper outer conductor clad witha corrosion resistant alloy. In some embodiments, an overburden sectionmay include a relatively thick ferromagnetic portion to inhibitcrushing.

In certain embodiments, a temperature limited heater may provide someheat to the overburden portion of a heater well and/or production well.Heat supplied to the overburden portion may inhibit formation fluids(e.g., water and hydrocarbons) from refluxing or condensing in thewellbore. Refluxing fluids may use a large portion of heat energysupplied to a target section of the wellbore, thus limiting heattransfer from the wellbore to the target section.

A temperature limited heater may be constructed in sections that arecoupled (e.g., welded) together. The sections may be about 10 m long.Construction materials for each section may be chosen to provide aselected heat output for different parts of the formation. For example,an oil shale formation may contain layers with highly variablerichnesses. Providing selected amounts of heat to individual layers, ormultiple layers with similar richnesses, may improve heating efficiencyof the formation and/or inhibit collapse of the wellbore. A splicesection may be formed between the sections, for example, by welding theinner conductors, filling the splice section with an insulator, and thenwelding the outer conductor. Alternatively, the heater may be formedfrom larger diameter tubulars and drawn down to a desired length anddiameter. A magnesium oxide insulation layer may be added by aweld-fill-draw method (starting from metal strip) or a fill-draw method(starting from tubulars) well known in the industry in the manufactureof mineral insulated heater cables. The assembly and filling can be donein a vertical or a horizontal orientation. The final heater assembly maybe spooled onto a large diameter spool (e.g., about 6 m in diameter) andtransported to a site of a formation for subsurface deployment.Alternatively, the heater may be assembled on site in sections as theheater is lowered vertically into a wellbore.

A temperature limited heater may be a single-phase heater or athree-phase heater. In a three-phase heater embodiment, a heater mayhave a delta or a wye configuration. Each of the three ferromagneticconductors in a three-phase heater may be inside a separate sheath. Aconnection between conductors may be made at the bottom of the heaterinside a splice section. The three conductors may remain insulated fromthe sheath inside the splice section.

FIG. 112 depicts an embodiment of a three-phase temperature limitedheater with ferromagnetic inner conductors. Each leg 882 may have innerconductor 790, core 814, and jacket 800. Inner conductors 790 may beferritic stainless steel or 1% carbon steel. Inner conductors 790 mayhave core 814. Core 814 may be copper. Each inner conductor 790 may becoupled to its own jacket 800. Jacket 800 may be a sheath made of acorrosion resistant material (e.g., 304H stainless steel). Electricalinsulator 792 may be placed between inner conductor 790 and jacket 800.Inner conductor 790 may be ferritic stainless steel or carbon steel withan outside diameter of about 1.14 cm and a thickness of about 0.445 cm.Core 814 may be a copper core with a 0.25 cm diameter. Each leg 882 ofthe heater may be coupled to terminal block 884. Terminal block 884 maybe filled with insulation material 886 and have an outer surface ofstainless steel. Insulation material 886 may, in some embodiments, bemagnesium oxide or other suitable electrically insulating material.Inner conductors 790 of legs 882 may be coupled (e.g., welded) interminal block 884. Jackets 800 of legs 882 may be coupled (e.g.,welded) to an outer surface of terminal block 884. Terminal block 884may include two halves coupled together around the coupled portions oflegs 882.

In an embodiment, the heated section of a three-phase heater may beabout 245 m long. The three-phase heater may be wye connected andoperated at a current of about 150 A. The resistance of one leg of theheater may increase from about 1.1 ohms at room temperature to about 3.1ohms at about 650° C. The resistance of one leg may decrease rapidlyabove about 720° C. to about 1.5 ohms. The voltage may increase fromabout 165 V at room temperature to about 465 V at 650° C. The voltagemay decrease rapidly above about 720° C. to about 225 V. The heat outputper leg may increase from about 102 watts/meter at room temperature toabout 285 watts/meter at 650° C. The heat output per leg may decreaserapidly above about 720° C. to about 1.4 watts/meter. Other embodimentsof inner conductor 790, core 814, jacket 800, and/or electricalinsulator 792 may be used in the three-phase temperature limited heatershown in FIG. 112. Any embodiment of a single-phase temperature limitedheater may be used as a leg of a three-phase temperature limited heater.

In some three-phase heater embodiments, three ferromagnetic conductorsmay be separated by an insulation layer inside a common outer metalsheath. The three conductors may be insulated from the sheath or thethree conductors may be connected to the sheath at the bottom of theheater assembly. In another embodiment, a single outer sheath or threeouter sheaths may be ferromagnetic conductors and the inner conductorsmay be non-ferromagnetic (e.g., aluminum, copper, or a highly conductivealloy). Alternatively, each of the three non-ferromagnetic conductorsmay be inside a separate ferromagnetic sheath, and a connection betweenthe conductors may be made at the bottom of the heater inside a splicesection. The three conductors may remain insulated from the sheathinside the splice section.

FIG. 113 depicts an embodiment of a three-phase temperature limitedheater with ferromagnetic inner conductors in a common jacket. Innerconductors 790 may be placed in electrical insulator 792. Innerconductors 790 and electrical insulator 792 may be placed in a singlejacket 800. Jacket 800 may be a sheath made of corrosion resistantmaterial (e.g., stainless steel). Jacket 800 may have an outsidediameter of between about 2.5 cm and about 5 cm (e.g., about 3.1 cm(1.25 inches) or about 3.8 cm (1.5 inches)). Inner conductors 790 may becoupled at or near the bottom of the heater at termination 888.Termination 888 may be a welded termination of inner conductors 790.Inner conductors 790 may be coupled in a wye configuration.

In some embodiments, a three-phase heater may include three legs thatare located within separate wellbores. The legs may be coupled in acommon contacting section (e.g., a central wellbore). FIG. 114 depictsan embodiment of temperature limited heaters coupled together in athree-phase configuration. Each leg 890, 892, 894 may be located inseparate openings 640 in hydrocarbon layer 556. Each leg 890, 892, 894may include heating element 898. Each leg 890, 892, 894 may be coupledto single contacting element 896 in one opening 640. Contacting element896 may electrically couple legs 890, 892, 894 together in a three-phaseconfiguration. Contacting element 896 may be located in, for example, acentral opening in the formation. Contacting element 896 may be locatedin a portion of opening 640 below hydrocarbon layer 556 (e.g., anunderburden). In certain embodiments, magnetic tracking of magneticelement located in a central opening (e.g., opening 640 with leg 892)may be used to guide the formation of the outer openings (e.g., openings640 with legs 890 and 894) so that the outer openings intersect with thecentral opening. The central opening may be formed first using standardwellbore drilling methods. Contacting element 896 may include funnels,guides, or catchers for allowing each leg to be inserted into thecontacting element.

In some embodiments, a temperature limited heater may include a singleferromagnetic conductor with current returning through the formation.The heating element may be a ferromagnetic tubular (e.g., 446 stainlesssteel (with 25% chromium and a Curie temperature above about 620° C.)clad over 304H, 316H, or 347HH stainless steel) that extends through theheated target section and makes electrical contact to the formation inan electrical contacting section. The electrical contacting section maybe located below a heated target section (e.g., in an underburden of theformation). In an embodiment, the electrical contacting section may be asection about 60 m deep with a larger diameter wellbore. The tubular inthe electrical contacting section may be a high electrical conductivitymetal. The annulus in the electrical contacting section may be filledwith a contact material/solution such as brine or other materials thatenhance electrical contact with the formation (e.g., metal beads,hematite). The electrical contacting section may be located in a lowresistivity brine saturated zone to maintain electrical contact throughthe brine. In the electrical contacting section, the tubular diametermay also be increased to allow maximum current flow into the formationwith lower heat dissipation in the fluid. Current may flow through theferromagnetic tubular in the heated section and heat the tubular.

FIG. 115 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater withcurrent return through the formation. Heating element 898 may be placedin opening 640 in hydrocarbon layer 556. Heating element 898 may be a446 stainless steel clad over a 304H stainless steel tubular thatextends through hydrocarbon layer 556. Heating element 898 may becoupled to contacting element 896. Contacting element 896 may have ahigher electrical conductivity than heating element 898. Contactingelement 896 may be placed in electrical contacting section 900, locatedbelow hydrocarbon layer 556. Contacting element 896 may make electricalcontact with the earth in electrical contacting section 900. Contactingelement 896 may be placed in contacting wellbore 902. Contacting element896 may have a diameter between about 10 cm and about 20 cm (e.g., about15 cm). The diameter of contacting element 896 may be sized to increasecontact area between contacting element 896 and contact solution 904.The contact area may be increased by increasing the diameter ofcontacting element 896. Increasing the diameter of contacting element896 may increase the contact area without adding excessive cost toinstallation and use of the contacting element, contacting wellbore 902,and/or contact solution 904. Increasing the diameter of contactingelement 896 may allow sufficient electrical contact to be maintainedbetween the contacting element and electrical contacting section 900.Increasing the contact area may also inhibit evaporation or boiling offof contact solution 904.

Contacting wellbore 902 may be, for example, a section about 60 m deepwith a larger diameter wellbore than opening 640. The annulus ofcontacting wellbore 902 may be filled with contact solution 904. Contactsolution 904 may be brine or other material that enhances electricalcontact with electrical contacting section 900. In some embodiments,electrical contacting section 900 is a low resistivity brine saturatedzone that maintains electrical contact through the brine. Contactingwellbore 902 may be under-reamed to a larger diameter (e.g., a diameterbetween about 25 cm and about 50 cm) to allow maximum current flow intoelectrical contacting section 900 with low heat output. Current may flowthrough heating element 898, boiling moisture from the wellbore, andheating until the heat output reduces near or at the Curie temperature.

In an embodiment, three-phase temperature limited heaters may be madewith current connection through the formation. Each heater may include asingle Curie temperature heating element with an electrical contactingsection in a brine saturated zone below a heated target section. In anembodiment, three such heaters may be connected electrically at thesurface in a three-phase wye configuration. The heaters may be deployedin a triangular pattern from the surface. In certain embodiments, thecurrent returns through the earth to a neutral point between the threeheaters. The three-phase Curie heaters may be replicated in a patternthat covers the entire formation.

FIG. 116 depicts an embodiment of a three-phase temperature limitedheater with current connection through the formation. Legs 890, 892, 894may be placed in the formation. Each leg 890, 892, 894 may have heatingelement 898 that is placed in opening 640 in hydrocarbon layer 556. Eachleg may have contacting element 896 placed in contact solution 904 incontacting wellbore 902. Each contacting element 896 may be electricallycoupled to electrical contacting section 900 through contact solution904. Legs 890, 892, 894 may be connected in a wye configuration thatresults in a neutral point in electrical contacting section 900 betweenthe three legs. FIG. 117 depicts an aerial view of the embodiment ofFIG. 116 with neutral point 906 shown positioned centrally among legs890, 892, 894. FIG. 118 depicts an embodiment of a three-phasetemperature limited heater with a common current connection through theformation. In FIG. 118, each leg 890, 892, 894 couples to a singlecontacting element 896 in a single contacting wellbore 902. Contactingelement 896 may include funnels, guides, or catchers for allowing eachleg to be inserted into the contacting element.

A section of heater through a high thermal conductivity zone may betailored to deliver more heat dissipation in the high thermalconductivity zone. Tailoring of the heater may be achieved by changingcross-sectional areas of the heating elements (e.g., by changing ratiosof copper to iron), and/or using different metals in the heatingelements. Thermal conductance of the insulation layer may also bemodified in certain sections to control the thermal output to raise orlower the apparent Curie temperature zone.

In an embodiment, a temperature limited heater may include a hollow coreor hollow inner conductor. Layers forming the heater may be perforatedto allow fluids from the wellbore (e.g., formation fluids, water) toenter the hollow core. Fluids in the hollow core may be transported(e.g., pumped) to the surface through the hollow core. In someembodiments, a temperature limited heater with a hollow core or hollowinner conductor may be used as a heater/production well or a productionwell.

In certain embodiments, a temperature limited heater may be utilized forheavy oil applications (e.g., treatment of relatively permeableformations or tar sands formations). A temperature limited heater mayprovide a relatively low Curie temperature so that a maximum averageoperating temperature of the heater is less than 350° C., 300° C., 250°C., 225° C., 200° C., or 150° C. In an embodiment (e.g., for a tar sandsformation), a maximum temperature of the heater may be less than about250° C. to inhibit olefin generation and production of other crackedproducts. In some embodiments, a maximum temperature of the heater aboveabout 250° C. may be used to produce lighter hydrocarbon products. Forexample, the maximum temperature of the heater may be at or less thanabout 500° C.

A heater may heat a wellbore (e.g., a production wellbore) and thesurrounding portions of a formation so that a temperature of thewellbore is less than a temperature that causes degradation of the fluidflowing through the wellbore. Heat from a temperature limited heater mayreduce the viscosity of crude oil in or near the wellbore. In certainembodiments, heat from a temperature limited heater may mobilize fluidsin or near the wellbore and/or enhance the radial flow of fluids to thewellbore. In some embodiments, reducing the viscosity of crude oil mayallow or enhance gas lifting of heavy oil or intermediate gravity oil(about 12° to about 20° API gravity oil) from the wellbore. In certainembodiments, the viscosity of oil in the formation is greater than about50 cp. Large amounts of natural gas may have to be utilized to providegas lift of oil with viscosities above about 50 cp. Reducing theviscosity of oil at or near a wellbore in the formation to a viscosityof about 30 cp or less may lower the amount of natural gas needed tolift oil from the formation. In some embodiments, reduced viscosity oilmay be produced by other methods (e.g., pumping).

The rate of production of oil from a formation may be increased byraising the temperature at or near a wellbore to reduce the viscosity ofthe oil in the formation. In certain embodiments, the rate of productionof oil from a formation may be increased by about 2 times, about 3times, or greater over standard cold production (i.e., no externalheating of formation during production). Certain formations may be moreeconomically viable for enhanced oil production using a temperaturelimited heater in a production well. Formations that have a coldproduction rate between about 0.05 m³/(day per meter of wellbore length)and about 0.20 m³/(day per meter of wellbore length) may havesignificant improvements in production rate using a temperature limitedheater in the production wellbore to reduce the viscosity of oil at ornear the wellbore. In some formations, production wells up to about 775m in length may be used (e.g., production wells may be between about 450m and about 775 m in length). Thus, a significant increase in productionmay be achieved in some formations. A temperature limited heater in aproduction wellbore may be used in formations where the cold productionrate is not between about 0.05 m³/(day per meter of wellbore length) andabout 0.20 m³/(day per meter of wellbore length), but may not be aseconomically viable. For example, higher cold production rates may notbe significantly increased while lower production rates may not beincreased to an economic value.

FIG. 119 depicts an embodiment for heating and producing from aformation with a temperature limited heater in a production wellbore.Production conduit 910 may be located in wellbore 908. In certainembodiments, a portion of wellbore 908 may be located substantiallyhorizontally in formation 554. In some embodiments, the wellbore may belocated substantially vertically in the formation. In an embodiment,wellbore 908 is an open wellbore (i.e., uncased wellbore). In someembodiments, the wellbore may have a casing or walls that haveperforations or openings to allow fluid to flow into the wellbore.

Production conduit 910 may be made from carbon steel or more corrosionresistant materials (e.g., stainless steel). Production conduit 910 mayinclude apparatus and mechanisms for gas lifting or pumping produced oilto the surface. For example, production conduit 910 may include gas liftvalves used in a gas lift process. Examples of gas lift control systemsand valves are disclosed in allowed U.S. patent application Ser. Nos.09/768,705 to Vinegar et al., 09/769/047 to Bass et al., and 10/220,254to Hirsch et al., each of which is incorporated by reference as if fullyset forth herein. Production conduit 910 may include one or moreopenings (e.g., perforations) to allow fluid to flow into the productionconduit. In certain embodiments, the openings in production conduit 910may be in a portion of the production conduit that remains below theliquid level in wellbore 908. For example, the openings may be in ahorizontal portion of production conduit 910.

Heater 880 may be located in production conduit 910, as shown in FIG.119. In some embodiments, heater 880 may be located outside productionconduit 910, as shown in FIG. 120 (e.g., the heater may be coupled(strapped) to the production conduit). In some embodiments, more thanone heater (e.g., two or three heaters) may be placed about theproduction conduit 910. The use of more than one heater may reducebowing or flexing of the production conduit caused by heating on onlyone side of the production conduit. In an embodiment, heater 880 is atemperature limited heater. Heater 880 may provide heat to reduce theviscosity of fluid (e.g., oil or hydrocarbons) in and near wellbore 908.In an embodiment, heater 880 may provide a maximum temperature of about250° C. or less. For example, heater 880 may include ferromagneticmaterials such as Carpenter Temperature Compensator “32”, alloy 42-6,Invar 36, or other iron-nickel or iron-nickel-chromium alloys. Incertain embodiments, nickel or nickel-chromium alloys may be used inheater 880. In some embodiments, heater 880 may include a compositeconductor with a more highly conductive material (e.g., copper) on theinside the heater to improve the turndown ratio of the heater. Heat fromheater 880 may heat fluids in or near wellbore 908 to reduce theviscosity of the fluids and increase a production rate throughproduction conduit 910.

In certain embodiments, portions of heater 880 above the liquid level inwellbore 908 (e.g., the vertical portion of the wellbore depicted inFIGS. 119 and 120) may have a lower maximum temperature than portions ofthe heater located below the liquid level. For example, portions ofheater 880 above the liquid level in wellbore 908 may have a maximumtemperature of about 100° C. while portions of the heater located belowthe liquid level have a maximum temperature of about 250° C. In certainembodiments, such a heater may include two or more ferromagneticsections with different Curie temperatures to achieve the desiredheating pattern. Providing less heat to portions of wellbore 908 abovethe liquid level and closer to the surface may save energy.

In certain embodiments, heater 880 may be electrically isolated on theheater's outside surface and allowed to move freely in productionconduit 910. For example, heater 880 may include a furnace cable innerconductor. In some embodiments, electrically insulating centralizers maybe placed on the outside of heater 880 to maintain a gap betweenproduction conduit 910 and the heater. Centralizers may be made of gaspressure sintered reaction bonded silicon nitride. In some embodiments,heater 880 may be electrically coupled to production conduit 910 so thatan electrical circuit is completed with the production conduit. Forexample, an alternating current voltage may be applied to heater 880 andproduction conduit 910 so that alternating current flows down the outersurface of the heater and returns to a wellhead on the inside surface ofthe production conduit. Heater 880 and production conduit 910 mayinclude ferromagnetic materials so that the alternating current isconfined substantially to a skin depth on the outside of the heaterand/or a skin depth on the inside of the production conduit. A slidingconnector may be located at or near the bottom of production conduit 910to electrically couple the production conduit and heater 880.

In some embodiments, heater 880 may be cycled (i.e., turned on and off)so that fluids produced through production conduit 910 are notoverheated. In an embodiment, heater 880 may be turned on for aspecified amount of time until a temperature of fluids in or nearwellbore 908 reaches a desired temperature (e.g., the maximumtemperature of the heater). During the heating time (e.g., about 10days, about 20 days, or about 30 days), production through productionconduit 910 may be stopped to allow fluids in the formation to “soak”and obtain a reduced viscosity. After heating is turned off or reduced,production through production conduit 910 may be started and fluids fromthe formation may be produced without excess heat being provided to thefluids. During production, fluids in or near wellbore 908 will cool downwithout heat from heater 880 being provided. When the fluids reach atemperature at which production significantly slows down, production maybe stopped and heater 880 may be turned back on to reheat the fluids.This process may be repeated until a desired amount of production isreached. In some embodiments, some heat at a lower temperature may beprovided to maintain a flow of the produced fluids. For example, lowtemperature heat (e.g., about 100° C.) may be provided in the upperportions of wellbore 908 to keep fluids from cooling to a lowertemperature.

In some embodiments, heat may be inhibited from transferring intoproduction conduit 910. FIG. 121 depicts an embodiment of productionconduit 910 and heaters 880 that inhibits heat transfer into theproduction conduit. Heaters 880 may be coupled to production conduit910. Heaters 880 may include ferromagnetic sections 786 andnon-ferromagnetic sections 788. Ferromagnetic sections 786 may provideheat at a temperature that reduces the viscosity of fluids in or near awellbore. Non-ferromagnetic sections 788 may provide little or no heat.In certain embodiments, ferromagnetic sections 786 and non-ferromagneticsections 788 may be about 6 m in length. In some embodiments,ferromagnetic sections 786 and non-ferromagnetic sections 788 may bebetween about 3 m and 12 m in length. In certain embodiments,non-ferromagnetic sections 788 may include perforations 912 to allowfluids to flow to production conduit 910. In some embodiments, heater880 may be positioned so that perforations are not needed to allowfluids to flow to production conduit 910.

Production conduit 910 may have perforations 912 to allow fluid to enterthe production conduit. Perforations 912 may coincide withnon-ferromagnetic sections 788 of heater 880. Sections of productionconduit 910 that coincide with ferromagnetic sections 786 may includeinsulation conduit 914. Insulation conduit 914 may be a vacuum insulatedtubular. For example, insulation conduit 914 may be a vacuum insulatedproduction tubular available from Oil Tech Services, Inc. (Houston,Tex.). Insulation conduit 914 may inhibit heat transfer into productionconduit 910 from ferromagnetic sections 786. Limiting the heat transferinto production conduit 910 may reduce heat loss and/or inhibitoverheating of fluids in the production conduit. In an embodiment,heater 880 may provide heat along an entire length of the heater andproduction conduit 910 may include insulation conduit 914 along anentire length of the production conduit.

In certain embodiments, more than one wellbore 908 may be used toproduce heavy oils from a formation using a temperature limited heater.FIG. 122 depicts an end view of an embodiment with wellbores 908 locatedin hydrocarbon layer 556. A portion of wellbores 908 may be placedsubstantially horizontally in a triangular pattern in hydrocarbon layer556. In certain embodiments, wellbores 908 may have a spacing of about30 m to about 60 m. Wellbores 908 may include production conduits andheaters as described in the embodiments of FIGS. 119 and 120. Fluids maybe heated and produced through wellbores 908 at an increased productionrate above a cold production rate for the formation. Production maycontinue for a selected time (e.g., about 5 years to about 10 years)until heat produced from each of wellbores 908 begins to overlap (i.e.,superposition of heat begins). At such a time, heat from lower wellbores(e.g., wellbores 908 near the bottom of hydrocarbon layer 556) may becontinued, reduced, or turned off while production may be continued.Production in upper wellbores (e.g., wellbores 908 near the top ofhydrocarbon layer 556) may be stopped so that fluids in the hydrocarbonlayer drain towards the lower wellbores. In some embodiments, power maybe increased to the upper wellbores and the temperature raised above theCurie temperature to increase the heat injection rate. Draining fluidsin the formation in such a process may increase total hydrocarbonrecovery from the formation.

In an embodiment, a temperature limited heater may be used in ahorizontal heater/production well. The temperature limited heater mayprovide selected amounts of heat to the “toe” and the “heel” of thehorizontal portion of the well. More heat may be provided to theformation through the toe than through the heel, creating a “hotportion” at the toe and a “warm portion” at the heel. Formation fluidsmay be formed in the hot portion and produced through the warm portion,as shown in FIG. 123.

FIG. 123 depicts an embodiment of a heater well for selectively heatinga formation. Heat source 508 may be placed in opening 640 in hydrocarbonlayer 556. In certain embodiments, opening 640 may be a substantiallyhorizontal opening within hydrocarbon layer 556. Perforated casing 916may be placed in opening 640. Perforated casing 916 may provide supportfrom hydrocarbon and/or other material in hydrocarbon layer 556collapsing opening 640. Perforations in perforated casing 916 may allowfor fluid flow from hydrocarbon layer 556 into opening 640. Heat source508 may include hot portion 918. Hot portion 918 may be a portion ofheat source 508 that operates at higher heat outputs of a heat source.For example, hot portion 918 may output between about 650 watts permeter and about 1650 watts per meter. Hot portion 918 may extend from a“heel” of the heat source to the end of the heat source (i.e., the “toe”of the heat source). The heel of a heat source is the portion of theheat source closest to the point at which the heat source enters ahydrocarbon layer. The toe of a heat source is the end of the heatsource furthest from the entry of the heat source into a hydrocarbonlayer.

In an embodiment, heat source 508 may include warm portion 920. Warmportion 920 may be a portion of heat source 508 that operates at lowerheat outputs than hot portion 918. For example, warm portion 920 mayoutput between about 150 watts per meter and about 650 watts per meter.Warm portion 920 may be located closer to the heel of heat source 508.In certain embodiments, warm portion 920 may be a transition portion(i.e., a transition conductor) between hot portion 918 and overburdenportion 922. Overburden portion 922 may be located within overburden560. Overburden portion 922 may provide a lower heat output than warmportion 920. For example, overburden portion may output between about 30watts per meter and about 90 watts per meter. In some embodiments,overburden portion 922 may provide as close to no heat (0 watts permeter) as possible to overburden 560. Some heat, however, may be used tomaintain fluids produced through opening 640 in a vapor phase withinoverburden 560.

In certain embodiments, hot portion 918 of heat source 508 may heathydrocarbons to high enough temperatures to result in coke 924 formingin hydrocarbon layer 556. Coke 924 may occur in an area surroundingopening 640. Warm portion 920 may be operated at lower heat outputs suchthat coke does not form at or near the warm portion of heat source 508.Coke 924 may extend radially from opening 640 as heat from heat source508 transfers outward from the opening. At a certain distance, however,coke 924 no longer forms because temperatures in hydrocarbon layer 556at the certain distance will not reach coking temperatures. The distanceat which no coke forms may be a function of heat output (watts per meterfrom heat source 508), type of formation, hydrocarbon content in theformation, and/or other conditions within the formation.

The formation of coke 924 may inhibit fluid flow into opening 640through the coking Fluids in the formation may, however, be producedthrough opening 640 at the heel of heat source 508 (i.e., at warmportion 920 of the heat source) where there is no coke formation. Thelower temperatures at the heel of heat source 508 may reduce thepossibility of increased cracking of formation fluids produced throughthe heel. Fluids may flow in a horizontal direction through theformation more easily than in a vertical direction. Typically,horizontal permeability in a relatively permeable formation (e.g., a tarsands formation) is about 5 to 10 times greater than verticalpermeability. Thus, fluids may flow along the length of heat source 508in a substantially horizontal direction. Producing formation fluidsthrough opening 640 may be possible at earlier times than producingfluids through production wells in hydrocarbon layer 556. The earlierproduction times through opening 640 may be possible becausetemperatures near the opening increase faster than temperatures furtheraway due to conduction of heat from heat source 508 through hydrocarbonlayer 556. Early production of formation fluids (e.g., productionthrough opening 640 with heat source 508) may be used to maintain lowerpressures in hydrocarbon layer 556 during start-up heating of theformation (i.e., before production begins at production wells in theformation). Lower pressures in the formation may increase liquidproduction from the formation. In addition, producing formation fluidsthrough opening 640 may reduce the number of production wells needed inthe formation.

In some embodiments, a temperature limited heater may be used to heat asurface pipeline such as a sulfur transfer pipeline. For example, asurface sulfur pipeline may be heated to a temperature of about 100° C.,about 110° C., or about 130° C. to inhibit solidification of fluids inthe pipeline. Higher temperatures in the pipeline (e.g., above about130° C.) may induce undesirable degradation of fluids in the pipeline.

FIG. 124 depicts electrical resistance versus temperature at variousapplied electrical currents for a 446 stainless steel rod with adiameter of 2.5 cm and a 410 stainless steel rod with a diameter of 2.5cm. Both rods had a length of 1.8 m. Curves 926-932 depict resistanceprofiles as a function of temperature for the 446 stainless steel rod at440 amps AC (curve 926), 450 amps AC (curve 928), 500 amps AC (curve930), and 10 amps DC (curve 932). Curves 934-940 depict resistanceprofiles as a function of temperature for the 410 stainless steel rod at400 amps AC (curve 934), 450 amps AC (curve 936), 500 amps AC (curve938), 10 amps DC (curve 940). For both rods, the resistance graduallyincreased with temperature until the Curie temperature was reached. Atthe Curie temperature, the resistance fell sharply. Above the Curietemperature, the resistance decreased slightly with increasingtemperature. Both rods show a trend of decreasing resistance withincreasing AC current. Accordingly, the turndown ratio decreased withincreasing current. In contrast, the resistance gradually increased withtemperature through the Curie temperature with an applied DC current.

FIG. 125 shows resistance profiles as a function of temperature atvarious applied electrical currents for a copper rod contained in aconduit of Sumitomo HCM12A (a high strength 410 stainless steel). TheSumitomo conduit had a diameter of 5.1 cm, a length of 1.8 m, and a wallthickness of about 0.1 cm. Curves 942-952 show that at all appliedcurrents (942: 300 amps AC; 944: 350 amps AC; 946: 400 amps AC; 948: 450amps AC; 950: 500 amps AC; 952: 550 amps AC), resistance increasedgradually with temperature until the Curie temperature was reached. Atthe Curie temperature, the resistance fell sharply. As the currentincreased, the resistance decreased, resulting in a smaller turndownratio.

FIG. 126 depicts electrical resistance versus temperature at variousapplied electrical currents for a temperature limited heater. Thetemperature limited heater included a 4/0 MGT-1000 furnace cable insidean outer conductor of ¾″ Schedule 80 Sandvik (Sweden) 4C54 (446stainless steel) with a 0.30 cm thick copper sheath welded onto theoutside of the Sandvik 4C54 and a length of 1.8 m. Curves 954 through972 show resistance profiles as a function of temperature for AC appliedcurrents ranging from 40 amps to 500 amps (954: 40 amps; 956: 80 amps;958: 120 amps; 960: 160 amps; 962: 250 amps; 964: 300 amps; 966: 350amps; 968: 400 amps; 970: 450 amps; 972: 500 amps). FIG. 127 depicts theraw data for curve 968. FIG. 128 depicts the data for selected curves964, 966, 968, 970, 972, and 974. At lower currents (below 250 amps),the resistance increased with increasing temperature up to the Curietemperature. At the Curie temperature, the resistance fell sharply. Athigher currents (above 250 amps), the resistance decreased slightly withincreasing temperature up to the Curie temperature. At the Curietemperature, the resistance fell sharply. Curve 974 shows resistance foran applied DC electrical current of 10 amps. Curve 974 shows a steadyincrease in resistance with increasing temperature, with little or nodeviation at the Curie temperature.

FIG. 129 depicts power versus temperature at various applied electricalcurrents for a temperature limited heater. The temperature limitedheater included a 4/0 MGT-1000 furnace cable inside an outer conductorof ¾″ Schedule 80 Sandvik (Sweden) 4C54 (446 stainless steel) with a0.30 cm thick copper sheath welded onto the outside of the Sandvik 4C54and a length of 1.8 m. Curves 976-984 depict power versus temperaturefor AC applied currents of 300 amps to 500 amps (976: 300 amps; 978: 350amps; 980: 400 amps; 982: 450 amps; 984: 500 amps). Increasing thetemperature gradually decreased the power until the Curie temperaturewas reached. At the Curie temperature, the power decreased rapidly.

FIG. 130 depicts electrical resistance versus temperature at variousapplied electrical currents for a temperature limited heater. Thetemperature limited heater includes a copper rod with a diameter of 1.3cm inside an outer conductor of 1″ Schedule 80 410 stainless steel pipewith a 0.15 cm thick copper Everdur welded sheath over the 410 stainlesssteel pipe and a length of 1.8 m. Curves 986-996 show resistanceprofiles as a function of temperature for AC applied currents rangingfrom 300 amps to 550 amps (986: 300 amps; 988: 350 amps; 990: 400 amps;992: 450 amps; 994: 500 amps; 996: 550 amps). For these AC appliedcurrents, the resistance gradually increases with increasing temperatureup to the Curie temperature. At the Curie temperature, the resistancefalls sharply. In contrast, curve 998 shows resistance for an applied DCelectrical current of 10 amps. This resistance shows a steady increasewith increasing temperature, and little or no deviation at the Curietemperature.

FIG. 131 depicts data of electrical resistance versus temperature for asolid 2.54 cm diameter, 1.8 m long 410 stainless steel rod at variousapplied electrical currents. Curves 1000, 1002, 1004, 1006, and 1008depict resistance profiles as a function of temperature for the 410stainless steel rod at 40 amps AC (curve 1006), 70 amps AC (curve 1008),140 amps AC (curve 1000), 230 amps AC (curve 1002), and 10 amps DC(curve 1004). For the applied AC currents of 140 amps and 230 amps, theresistance increased gradually with increasing temperature until theCurie temperature was reached. At the Curie temperature, the resistancefell sharply. In contrast, the resistance showed a gradual increase withtemperature through the Curie temperature for an applied DC current.

FIG. 132 depicts data of electrical resistance versus temperature for acomposite 1.9 cm, 1.8 m long alloy 42-6 rod with a copper core (the rodhas an outside diameter to copper diameter ratio of 2:1) at variousapplied electrical currents. Curves 1010, 1012, 1014, 1016, 1018, 1020,1022, and 1024 depict resistance profiles as a function of temperaturefor the copper cored alloy 42-6 rod at 300 amps AC (curve 1010), 350amps AC (curve 1012), 400 amps AC (curve 1014), 450 amps AC (curve1016), 500 amps AC (curve 1018), 550 amps AC (curve 1020), 600 amps AC(curve 1022), and 10 amps DC (curve 1024). For the applied AC currents,the resistance decreased gradually with increasing temperature until theCurie temperature was reached. As the temperature approaches the Curietemperature, the resistance decreased more sharply. In contrast, theresistance showed a gradual increase with temperature for an applied DCcurrent.

FIG. 133 depicts data of power output versus temperature for a composite1.9 cm, 1.8 m long alloy 42-6 rod with a copper core (the rod has anoutside diameter to copper diameter ratio of 2:1) at various appliedelectrical currents. Curves 1026, 1028, 1030, 1032, 1034, 1036, 1038,and 1040 depict power as a function of temperature for the copper coredalloy 42-6 rod at 300 amps AC (curve 1026), 350 amps AC (curve 1028),400 amps AC (curve 1030), 450 amps AC (curve 1032), 500 amps AC (curve1034), 550 amps AC (curve 1036), 600 amps AC (curve 1038), and 10 ampsDC (curve 1040). For the applied AC currents, the power decreasedgradually with increasing temperature until the Curie temperature wasreached. As the temperature approaches the Curie temperature, the powerdecreased more sharply. In contrast, the power showed a relatively flatprofile with temperature for an applied DC current.

FIG. 134 depicts data for values of skin depth versus temperature for asolid 2.54 cm diameter, 1.8 m long 410 stainless steel rod at variousapplied AC electrical currents. The skin depth was calculated using EQN.29:

δ=R ₁ −R ₁×(1−(1/R _(AC) /R _(DC)))^(1/2);  (29)

where δ is the skin depth, R₁ is the radius of the cylinder, R_(AC) isthe AC resistance, and R_(DC) is the DC resistance. In FIG. 134, curves1042-1060 show skin depth profiles as a function of temperature forapplied AC electrical currents over a range of about 50 amps to 500 amps(1042: 50 amps; 1044: 100 amps; 1046: 150 amps; 1048: 200 amps; 1050:250 amps; 1052: 300 amps; 1054: 350 amps; 1056: 400 amps; 1058: 450amps; 1060: 500 amps). For each applied AC electrical current, the skindepth gradually increased with increasing temperature up to the Curietemperature. At the Curie temperature, the skin depth increased sharply.

FIG. 135 depicts temperature versus time for a temperature limitedheater. The temperature limited heater was a 1.83 m long heater thatincluded a copper rod with a diameter of about 1.3 cm inside a 1″Schedule XXH 410 stainless steel pipe and a 0.13″ copper sheath. Theheater was placed in an oven for heating. Alternating current wasapplied to the heater when the heater was in the oven. The current wasincreased over about two hours and reached a relatively constant valueof about 400 amps for the remainder of the time. Temperature of thestainless steel pipe was measured at three points at about 0.46 mintervals along the length of the heater. Curve 1062 depicts thetemperature of the pipe at a point about 0.46 m inside the oven andclosest to the lead-in portion of the heater. Curve 1064 depicts thetemperature of the pipe at a point about 0.46 m from the end of the pipeand furthest from the lead-in portion of the heater. Curve 1066 depictsthe temperature of the pipe at about a center point of the heater. Thepoint at the center of the heater was further enclosed in a 0.3 msection of 2.5 cm thick Fiberfrax® insulation. The insulation was usedto create a low thermal conductivity section on the heater (i.e., asection where heat transfer to the surroundings is slowed or inhibited(a “hot spot”)). The low thermal conductivity section could represent,for example, a rich layer in a hydrocarbon containing formation (e.g.,an oil shale formation). The temperature of the heater increased withtime as shown by curves 1066, 1064, and 1062. Curves 1066, 1064, and1062 show that the temperature of the heater increased to about the samevalue for all three points along the length of the heater. The resultingtemperatures were substantially independent of the added Fiberfrax®insulation. Thus, the temperature limited heater did not exceed theselected temperature limit in the presence of a low thermal conductivitysection.

FIG. 136 depicts temperature versus log time data for a 2.5 cm solid 410stainless steel rod and a 2.5 cm solid 304 stainless steel rod. At aconstant applied AC electrical current, the temperature of each rodincreased with time. Curve 1068 shows data for a thermocouple placed onan outer surface of the 304 stainless steel rod and under a layer ofinsulation. Curve 1070 shows data for a thermocouple placed on an outersurface of the 304 stainless steel rod without a layer of insulation.Curve 1072 shows data for a thermocouple placed on an outer surface ofthe 410 stainless steel rod and under a layer of insulation. Curve 1074shows data for a thermocouple placed on an outer surface of the 410stainless steel rod without a layer of insulation. A comparison of thecurves shows that the temperature of the 304 stainless steel rod (curves1068 and 1070) increased more rapidly than the temperature of the 410stainless steel rod (curves 1072 and 1074). The temperature of the 304stainless steel rod (curves 1068 and 1070) also reached a higher valuethan the temperature of the 410 stainless steel rod (curves 1072 and1074). The temperature difference between the non-insulated section ofthe 410 stainless steel rod (curve 1074) and the insulated section ofthe 410 stainless steel rod (curve 1072) was less than the temperaturedifference between the non-insulated section of the 304 stainless steelrod (curve 1070) and the insulated section of the 304 stainless steelrod (curve 1068). The temperature of the 304 stainless steel rod wasincreasing at the termination of the experiment (curves 1068 and 1070)while the temperature of the 410 stainless steel rod had leveled out(curves 1072 and 1074).

A numerical simulation (FLUENT) was used to compare operation oftemperature limited heaters with three turndown ratios. The simulationwas done for heaters in an oil shale formation (Green River oil shale).Simulation conditions were:

-   -   61 m length conductor-in-conduit Curie heaters (center conductor        (2.54 cm diameter), conduit outer diameter 7.3 cm)    -   downhole heater test field richness profile for an oil shale        formation    -   16.5 cm (6.5 inch) diameter wellbores at 9.14 m spacing between        wellbores on triangular spacing    -   200 hours power ramp-up time to 820 watts/m initial heat        injection rate    -   constant current operation after ramp up    -   Curie temperature of 720.6° C. for heater    -   formation will swell and touch the heater canisters for oil        shale richnesses greater than 0.14 L/kg (35 gals/ton)

FIG. 137 displays temperature of a center conductor of aconductor-in-conduit heater as a function of formation depth for a Curietemperature heater with a turndown ratio of 2:1. Curves 1076-1098 depicttemperature profiles in the formation at various times ranging from 8days after the start of heating to 675 days after the start of heating(1076: 8 days, 1078: 50 days, 1080: 91 days, 1082: 133 days, 1084: 216days, 1086: 300 days, 1088: 383 days, 1090: 466 days, 1092: 550 days,1094: 591 days, 1096: 633 days, 1098: 675 days). At a turndown ratio of2:1, the Curie temperature of 720.6° C. was exceeded after about 466days in the richest oil shale layers. FIG. 138 shows the correspondingheater heat flux through the formation for a turndown ratio of 2:1 alongwith the oil shale richness profile (curve 1100). Curves 1102-1134 showthe heat flux profiles at various times from 8 days after the start ofheating to 633 days after the start of heating (1102: 8 days; 1104: 50days; 1106: 91 days; 1108: 133 days; 1110: 175 days; 1112: 216 days;1114: 258 days; 1116: 300 days; 1118: 341 days; 1120: 383 days; 1122:425 days; 1124: 466 days; 1126: 508 days; 1128: 550 days; 1130: 591days; 1132: 633 days; 1134: 675 days). At a turndown ratio of 2:1, thecenter conductor temperature exceeded the Curie temperature in therichest oil shale layers.

FIG. 139 displays heater temperature as a function of formation depthfor a turndown ratio of 3:1. Curves 1136-1158 show temperature profilesthrough the formation at various times ranging from 12 days after thestart of heating to 703 days after the start of heating (1136: 12 days;1138: 33 days; 1140: 62 days; 1142: 102 days; 1144: 146 days; 1146: 205days; 1148: 271 days; 1150: 354 days; 1152: 467 days; 1154: 605 days;1156: 662 days; 1158: 703 days). At a turndown ratio of 3:1, the Curietemperature was approached after about 703 days. FIG. 140 shows thecorresponding heater heat flux through the formation for a turndownratio of 3:1 along with the oil shale richness profile (curve 1160).Curves 1162-1182 show the heat flux profiles at various times from 12days after the start of heating to 605 days after the start of heating(1162: 12 days, 1164: 32 days, 1166: 62 days, 1168: 102 days, 1170: 146days, 1172: 205 days, 1174: 271 days, 1176: 354 days, 1178: 467 days,1180: 605 days, 1182: 749 days). The center conductor temperature neverexceeded the Curie temperature for the turndown ratio of 3:1. The centerconductor temperature also showed a relatively flat temperature profilefor the 3:1 turndown ratio.

FIG. 141 shows heater temperature as a function of formation depth for aturndown ratio of 4:1. Curves 1184-1204 show temperature profilesthrough the formation at various times ranging from 12 days after thestart of heating to 467 days after the start of heating (1184: 12 days;1186: 33 days; 1188: 62 days; 1190: 102 days, 1192: 147 days; 1194: 205days; 1196: 272 days; 1198: 354 days; 1200: 467 days; 1202: 606 days,1204: 678 days). At a turndown ratio of 4:1, the Curie temperature wasnot exceeded even after 678 days. The center conductor temperature neverexceeded the Curie temperature for the turndown ratio of 4:1. The centerconductor showed a temperature profile for the 4:1 turndown ratio thatwas somewhat flatter than the temperature profile for the 3:1 turndownratio. The simulations show that the heater temperature stays at orbelow the Curie temperature for a longer time at higher turndown ratios.For this oil shale richness profile, a turndown ratio of greater than3:1 may be desirable.

Simulations have been performed to compare the use of temperaturelimited heaters and non-temperature limited heaters in an oil shaleformation. Simulation data was produced for conductor-in-conduit heatersplaced in 16.5 cm (6.5 inch) diameter wellbores with 12.2 m (40 feet)spacing between heaters using one or more of the analytical equationsset forth herein, a formation simulator (e.g., STARS), and a nearwellbore simulator (e.g., ABAQUS). Standard conductor-in-conduit heatersincluded 304 stainless steel conductors and conduits. Temperaturelimited conductor-in-conduit heaters included a metal with a Curietemperature of 760° C. for conductors and conduits. Results from thesimulations are depicted in FIGS. 142-144.

FIG. 142 depicts heater temperature at the conductor of aconductor-in-conduit heater versus depth of the heater in the formationfor a simulation after 20,000 hours of operation. Heater power was setat about 820 watts/meter until 760° C. was reached, and the power wasreduced to inhibit overheating. Curve 1206 depicts the conductortemperature for standard conductor-in-conduit heaters. Curve 1206 showsthat a large variance in conductor temperature and a significant numberof hot spots developed along the length of the conductor. Thetemperature of the conductor had a minimum value of about 490° C. Curve1208 depicts conductor temperature for temperature limitedconductor-in-conduit heaters. As shown in FIG. 142, temperaturedistribution along the length of the conductor was more controlled forthe temperature limited heaters. In addition, the operating temperatureof the conductor was about 730° C. for the temperature limited heaters.Thus, more heat input would be provided to the formation for a similarheater power using temperature limited heaters.

FIG. 143 depicts heater heat flux versus time for the heaters used inthe simulation for heating oil shale. Curve 1210 depicts heat flux forstandard conductor-in-conduit heaters. Curve 1212 depicts heat flux fortemperature limited conductor-in-conduit heaters. As shown in FIG. 143,heat flux for the temperature limited heaters was maintained at a highervalue for a longer period of time than heat flux for standard heaters.The higher heat flux may provide more uniform and faster heating of theformation.

FIG. 144 depicts accumulated heat input versus time for the heaters usedin the simulation for heating oil shale. Curve 1214 depicts accumulatedheat input for standard conductor-in-conduit heaters. Curve 1216 depictsaccumulated heat input for temperature limited conductor-in-conduitheaters. As shown in FIG. 144, accumulated heat input for thetemperature limited heaters increased faster than accumulated heat inputfor standard heaters. The faster accumulation of heat in the formationusing temperature limited heaters may decrease the time needed forretorting the formation. Onset of retorting of an oil shale formationmay begin around an average accumulated heat input of 1.1×10⁸ kJ/meter.This value of accumulated heat input is reached around 5 years fortemperature limited heaters and between 9 and 10 years for standardheaters.

FIGS. 145-149 depict estimated properties of temperature limited heatersbased on analytical equations. The estimated properties in FIGS. 145-149were calculated using a value for the magnetic permeability that did notvary with current for low values of the current. FIG. 145 shows DCresistivity versus temperature for a 1% carbon steel temperature limitedheater. The resistivity increased with temperature from about 20microohm-cm at about 0° C. to about 120 microohm-cm at about 725° C.

FIG. 146 shows magnetic permeability versus temperature for a 1% carbonsteel temperature limited heater. The magnetic permeability decreasedrapidly at temperatures over about 650° C. The metal was substantiallynon-magnetic above about 750° C.

FIG. 147 shows skin depth versus temperature for a 1% carbon steeltemperature limited heater at 60 Hz. The skin depth increased from about0.13 cm at about 0° C. to about 0.445 cm at about 720° C. due to theincrease in DC resistivity. The sharp increase in skin depth above 720°C. (greater than 2.5 cm) is due to a decrease in magnetic permeabilitynear the Curie temperature.

FIG. 148 shows AC resistance for a 244 m long, 1″ Schedule XXS carbonsteel pipe, versus temperature at 60 Hz. AC resistance increased by afactor of about two from room temperature to about 650° C. due to thecompeting changes in resistivity and skin depth with temperature. Aboveabout 720° C., the sharp decrease in AC resistance was due to a decreasein magnetic permeability near the Curie temperature.

FIG. 149 shows heater power versus temperature for a 244 m long, 1″Schedule XXS carbon steel pipe, at 600 A (constant) and 60 Hz. The powerincreased by a factor of about two from room temperature to about 650°C., but then decreased sharply above about 650° C. due to a decrease inmagnetic permeability near the Curie temperature. This decrease in powernear the Curie temperature results in self-limiting of the heater suchthat elevated temperatures of the heater above about the Curietemperature do not occur.

FIGS. 150-152 depict AC resistance versus temperature for variousconductors as calculated using analytical equations including equationssuch as, for example, EQN. 28. The results depicted in FIGS. 150, 151,and 152 were calculated for a magnetic permeability that did not varywith current. Generally, the AC resistance of a conductor in a heater isindicative of the heat output (power) of the heater for a constantcurrent (power=(current)²×(resistance)). FIG. 150 depicts AC resistanceversus temperature for a 1.5 cm diameter iron conductor with a length of244 m. Curve 1218 shows that the AC resistance steadily increased withtemperature (which is typical for most metals) and began to decrease asthe temperature neared the Curie temperature. The AC resistancedecreased sharply above the Curie temperature (i.e., above about 740°C.).

FIG. 151 depicts AC resistance versus temperature for a 1.5 cm diametercomposite conductor of iron and copper with a length of 244 m. Curve1220 depicts AC resistance versus temperature for a 0.25 cm diametercopper core inside an iron conductor with an outside diameter of 1.5 cm.Curve 1222 depicts AC resistance versus temperature for a 0.5 cmdiameter copper core inside an iron conductor with an outside diameterof 1.5 cm. The alternating current at about room temperature travelsthrough the skin depth of the iron conductor. As shown in FIG. 151,increasing the diameter of the copper core, which decreased thethickness of the iron conductor for the same outside diameter, reducedthe temperature at which the AC resistance began to decrease. Thealternating current may begin to flow through the larger copper core atlower temperatures because of the smaller thickness of the ironconductor.

FIG. 152 depicts AC resistance versus temperature for a 1.3 cm diametercomposite conductor of iron and copper with a length of 244 m and ACresistance versus temperature for the 1.5 cm diameter compositeconductor of iron and copper with a length of 244 m (curve 1222) fromFIG. 151. Curve 1224 depicts AC resistance versus temperature for a 0.3cm diameter copper core inside a 0.5 cm thick iron conductor. As shownin FIG. 152, the 1.3 cm diameter composite conductor with a 0.3 cm(curve 1224) has a relatively flat resistance profile from about 200° C.to about 600° C. This relatively flat resistance profile may provide adesired heat output profile for use in heating a hydrocarbon containingformation or other subsurface formation. A desired heater for heating ahydrocarbon containing formation may increase the heat output to arelatively constant level at low temperature and then maintain therelatively constant heat output level over a large temperature range.Such a heater may quickly and uniformly heat a hydrocarbon containingformation.

A heater with the resistance profile of curve 1222 (i.e., the resistanceslowly decreases with temperature above a certain temperature) may beused in certain embodiments for heating subsurface formations. Forexample, a heater may be needed to provide more heat output at lowertemperatures to heat a formation with significant amounts of water. Aheater that provides more heat output at lower temperatures may be usedto remove the water without providing excess heat to portions of theformation that do not contain significant amounts of water.

Analytical solutions for the AC conductance of ferromagnetic materialsmay be used to predict the behavior of ferromagnetic material and/orother materials during heating of a formation. The AC conductance of awire of uniform circular cross section made of ferromagnetic materialsmay be solved for analytically. For a wire of radius b, the magneticpermeability, electric permittivity, and electrical conductivity of thewire may be denoted by μ, ε, and σ, respectively. The parameter, μ, istreated as a constant (i.e., independent of the magnetic fieldstrength).

Maxwell's Equations are:

∇· B=0;  (30)

∇× E+∂B/∂t=0;  (31)

∇·D=ρ;  (32)

and ∇× H−∂D∂t=J.  (33)

The constitutive equations for the wire are:

D=εE, B=μH, J=σE.  (34)

Substituting EQN. 34 into EQNS. 30-33, setting ρ=0, and writing:

E (r,t)= E _(S)(r)e ^(jωt)  (35)

and H (r,t)= H _(S)(r)e ^(jωt),  (36)

the following equations are obtained:

∇· H _(S)=0;  (37)

∇× E _(S) +jμωH _(S)=0;  (38)

∇· E _(S)=0;  (39)

and ∇× H _(S) −jωεE _(S) =σE _(S).  (40)

Note that EQN. 39 follows on taking the divergence of EQN. 40. Takingthe curl of EQN. 38, using the fact that for any vector function F:

∇×∇×F=∇(∇·F)−∇² F,  (41)

and applying EQN. 37, it is deduced that:

∇² E _(S) −C ² E _(S)=0,  (42)

where C ²=jωμσ_(eff),  (43)

with σ_(eff)=σ+jωε.  (44)

For a cylindrical wire, it is assumed that:

E _(S) =E _(S)(r){circumflex over (k)},  (45)

which means that E_(S)(r) satisfies the equation:

$\begin{matrix}{{{\frac{1}{r}\frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left( {r\frac{\partial E_{S}}{\partial r}} \right)} - {C^{2}E_{S}}} = 0.} & (46)\end{matrix}$

The general solution of EQN. 46 is:

E _(S)(r)=AI ₀(Cr)+BK ₀(Cr).  (47)

B must vanish as K₀ is singular at r=0, and so it is deduced that:

$\begin{matrix}{{E_{S}(r)} = {{{E_{S}(b)}\frac{I_{0}({Cr})}{I_{0}({Cb})}} = {{{E_{S}(r)}}{^{{\varphi}{(r)}}.}}}} & (48)\end{matrix}$

The power output in the wire per unit length (P) is given by:

$\begin{matrix}{{P = {\frac{1}{2}{\int_{0}^{b}\ {{r}\; 2\pi \; r\; \sigma {E_{S}}^{2}}}}},} & (49)\end{matrix}$

and the mean current squared (<I²>) is given by:

$\begin{matrix}{{\langle I^{2}\rangle} = {{\frac{1}{2}{{\int_{0}^{b}\ {{r}\; 2\pi \; {rJ}_{S}}}}^{2}} = {\frac{1}{2}{{{\int_{0}^{b}\ {{r}\; 2\pi \; r\; \sigma \; E_{S}}}}^{2}.}}}} & (50)\end{matrix}$

EQNS. 49 and 50 may be used to obtain an expression for the effectiveresistance per unit length (R) of the wire. This gives:

$\begin{matrix}{{{R \equiv {P/{\langle I^{2}\rangle}}} = {\frac{\int_{0}^{b}\ {{{rr}}\; \sigma {E_{S}}^{2}}}{2\pi {{\int_{0}^{b}\ {{{rr}}\; \sigma \; E_{S}}}}^{2}} = \frac{\int_{0}^{b}\ {{{rr}}{E_{S}}^{2}}}{2{\pi\sigma}{{\int_{0}^{b}\ {{rrE}_{S}}}}^{2}}}},} & (51)\end{matrix}$

with the second term on the right-hand side of EQN. 51 holding forconstant σ.

C may be expressed in terms of its real part (C_(R)) and its imaginarypart (C_(I)) so that:

C=C _(R) +iC _(I).  (52)

An approximate solution for C_(R) may be obtained. C_(R) may be chosento be positive. The quantities below may also be needed:

||C|={C _(R) ² +C _(I) ²}^(1/2)  (53)

and γ≡C/|C|=γ _(R) +iγ _(I).  (54)

A large value of Re(z) gives:

$\begin{matrix}{{I_{0}(z)} = {\frac{^{z}}{\sqrt{2\pi \; z}}{\left\{ {1 + {O\left\lbrack z^{- 1} \right\rbrack}} \right\}.}}} & (55)\end{matrix}$

This means that:

E _(S)(r)≅E _(S)(b)e ^(−γξ),  (56)

with ξ=|C|(b−r).  (57)

Substituting EQN. 56 into EQN. 51 yields the approximate result:

$\begin{matrix}{R = {\frac{{C}/2}{2\pi \; a\; {\sigma\gamma}_{R}} = {\frac{{C}^{2}/\left\{ {2\; C_{R}} \right\}}{2\pi \; b\; \sigma}.}}} & (58)\end{matrix}$

EQN. 58 may be written in the form:

R=1/(2πbδσ),  (59)

with δ=2C _(R) /|C| ²≅√{square root over (2/(ωμσ))}.  (60)

δ is known as the skin depth, and the approximate form in EQN. 60 ariseson replacing σ_(eff) by σ.

The expression in EQN. 56 may be obtained directly EQN. 46. Transformingto the variable ξ gives:

$\begin{matrix}{{{{\frac{1}{1 - {ɛ\xi}}\frac{\partial}{\partial\xi}\left( {\left( {1 - {ɛ\xi}} \right)\frac{\partial E_{S}}{\partial\xi}} \right)} - {\gamma^{2}E_{S}}} = 0},{with}} & (61) \\{ɛ = {1/{\left( {a{C}} \right).}}} & (62)\end{matrix}$

The solution of EQN. 61 can be written as:

$\begin{matrix}{{E_{S} = {\sum\limits_{k = 0}^{\infty}\; {E_{S}^{(k)}ɛ^{k}}}},{with}} & (63) \\{{{\frac{\partial^{2}E_{S}^{(0)}}{\partial\xi^{2}} - {\gamma^{2}E_{S}^{(0)}}} = 0}{and}} & (64) \\{{{{\frac{\partial^{2}E_{S}^{(m)}}{\partial\xi^{2}} - {\gamma^{2}E_{S}^{(m)}}} = {\sum\limits_{k = 1}^{m}\; {\xi^{k - 1}\frac{\partial E_{S}^{m - k}}{\partial\xi}}}};{m = 1}},2,\ldots} & (65)\end{matrix}$

The solution of EQN. 64 is:

E _(S) ⁰ =E _(S)(a)e ^(−γξ),  (66)

and solutions of EQN. 65 for successive m may also be readily writtendown. For instance:

E _(S) ⁽¹⁾=½E _(S)(a)ξe ^(−γξ).  (67)

The AC conductance of a composite wire having ferromagnetic materialsmay also be solved for analytically. In this case, the region 0≦r<a maybe composed of material 1 and the region a<r≦b may be composed ofmaterial 2. E_(S1)(r) and E_(S2)(r) may denote the electrical fields inthe two regions, respectively. This gives:

$\begin{matrix}{{{{{\frac{1}{r}\frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left( {r\frac{\partial E_{S\; 1}}{\partial r}} \right)} - {C_{1}^{2}E_{S\; 1}}} = 0};{0 \leq r < a}}{and}} & (68) \\{{{{{\frac{1}{r}\frac{\partial}{\partial r}\left( {r\frac{\partial E_{S\; 2}}{\partial r}} \right)} - {C_{2}^{2}E_{S\; 2}}} = 0};{a < r \leq b}},{with}} & (69) \\{{{{C_{k} = {{j\omega\mu}_{k}\sigma_{effk}}};{k = 1}},2}{and}} & (70) \\{{{\sigma_{effk} = {\sigma_{k} + {j\omega ɛ}_{k}}};{k = 1}},2.} & (71)\end{matrix}$

The solutions of EQNS. 68 and 69 satisfy the boundary conditions:

E _(S1)(a)=E _(S2)(a)  (72)

and H _(S1)(a)=H _(S2)(a)  (73)

and take the form:

E _(S1)(r)=A ₁ I ₀(C ₁ r)  (74)

and E _(S2)(r)=A ₂ I ₀(C ₂ r)+B ₂ K ₀(C ₂ r).  (75)

Using EQN. 38, the boundary condition in EQN. 73 may be expressed interms of the electric field as:

$\begin{matrix}{\left. {\frac{1}{\mu_{1}}\frac{\partial E_{S\; 1}}{\partial r}} \right|_{r = a} = \left. {\frac{1}{\mu_{2}}\frac{\partial E_{S\; 2}}{\partial r}} \middle| {}_{r = a}. \right.} & (76)\end{matrix}$

Applying the two boundary conditions in EQNS. 72 and 76 allows E_(S1)(r)and E_(S2)(r) to be expressed in terms of the electric field at thesurface of the wire E_(S2)(b). EQN. 72 yields:

A ₁ I ₀(C ₁ a)=A ₂ I ₀(C ₂ a)+B ₂ K ₀(C ₂ a)  (77)

while EQN. 76 gives:

A ₁ {tilde over (C)} ₁ I ₁(C ₁ a)={tilde over (C)} ₂ {A ₂ I ₁(C ₂ a)−B ₂K ₁(C ₂ a)}  (78)

Writing EQN. 78 uses the fact that:

$\begin{matrix}{{{I_{1}(z)} = {\frac{}{z}{I_{0}(z)}}};{{K_{1}(z)} = {{- \frac{}{z}}{K_{0}(z)}}}} & (79)\end{matrix}$

and introduces the quantities:

{tilde over (C)} ₁ ≡C ₁/μ₁ ; {tilde over (C)} ₂ ≡C ₂/μ₂.  (80)

Solving EQN. 77 for A₂ and B₂ in terms of A₁ obtains:

$\begin{matrix}{{{A_{2} = {A_{1}\frac{{{\overset{\sim}{C}}_{2}{I_{0}\left( {C_{1}a} \right)}{K_{1}\left( {C_{2}a} \right)}} + {{\overset{\sim}{C}}_{1}{I_{1}\left( {C_{1}a} \right)}{K_{0}\left( {C_{2}a} \right)}}}{{\overset{\sim}{C}}_{2}\left\{ {{{I_{0}\left( {C_{2}a} \right)}{K_{1}\left( {C_{2}a} \right)}} + {{I_{1}\left( {C_{2}a} \right)}{K_{0}\left( {C_{2}a} \right)}}} \right\}}}};}{and}} & (81) \\{B_{2} = {A_{1}{\frac{{{\overset{\sim}{C}}_{2}{I_{0}\left( {C_{1}a} \right)}{I_{1}\left( {C_{2}a} \right)}} - {{\overset{\sim}{C}}_{1}{I_{1}\left( {C_{1}a} \right)}{I_{0}\left( {C_{2}a} \right)}}}{{\overset{\sim}{C}}_{2}\left\{ {{{I_{0}\left( {C_{2}a} \right)}{K_{1}\left( {C_{2}a} \right)}} + {{I_{1}\left( {C_{2}a} \right)}{K_{0}\left( {C_{2}a} \right)}}} \right\}}.}}} & (82)\end{matrix}$

Power output per unit length and AC resistance of a composite wire maybe solved for similarly to the method used for the uniform wire. In somecases, if the skin depth of the conductor is small in comparison to theradius of the wire, the functions containing C₂ may become large and maybe replaced by exponentials. However, as the temperature nears the Curietemperature, a full solution may be required.

The dependence of μ on B may be treated iteratively by solving the aboveequations first with a constant μ to determine B. Then the known Bversus H curves for the ferromagnetic material may be used to iteratefor the exact value of μ in the equations.

FIG. 153 depicts AC resistance versus temperature using the derivedanalytical equations. The AC resistance has been calculated for acomposite wire (244 m long, outside diameter of 1.52 cm) with a coppercore (outside diameter of 0.25 cm) and a carbon steel outer layer(thickness of 0.635 cm). FIG. 153 shows that the AC resistance for thiscomposite wire begins to decrease above about 647° C. and then decreasessharply above about 716° C.

Analytical equations may be used to determine the relative magneticpermeability as a function of magnetic field and/or a rod diameter as afunction of heat flux and τ. τ may be the ratio of AC to DC resistanceof a heater at a given temperature T and power rating per unit length Q.Then:

τ=R _(AC) /R _(DC) =a ² /{a ²−(a−δ _(eff))²};  (83)

where a is the radius of the rod and where the effective skin depthδ_(eff) is given by:

$\begin{matrix}{\delta_{eff} = {\sqrt{\frac{2\rho}{{\omega\mu}_{0}\mu_{r}^{eff}}}.}} & (84)\end{matrix}$

The quantities appearing on the right-hand side of EQN. 84 are the DCresistivity, ρ, the angular frequency, ω=2πf, the permeability in vacuo,μ₀, and an effective relative magnetic permeability, μ_(r) ^(eff). Thislatter quantity depends on magnetic field H and temperature T.

Note that EQN. 83 may be rearranged to read:

δ_(eff) /a=1−(1−τ⁻¹)^(1/2).  (85)

The power delivered per unit length of heater is given by:

Q=I ² R _(AC) /L=I ²τρ/(πa ²).  (86)

Note that the magnetic field at the heater surface H is related to thecurrent by:

H=I/(2πa).  (87)

Substituting EQN. 87 into EQN. 86 and rearranging, the followingequation may be obtained:

H ² τ=Q/(4πρ).  (88)

Similarly, substituting EQN. 84 into EQN. 83 and rearranging gives:

a={1−(1−τ⁻¹)^(1/2)}⁻¹{2/(ωμ₀)}^(1/2){ρ/μ_(r) ^(eff)}^(1/2).  (89)

The following can be written:

ω=2πf=π/30 s⁻¹ (60 Hz);  (90)

μ₀=4π×10⁻⁷ Ωs/m;  (91)

and the following can be set:

ρ=ρ_(μΩcm)×10⁻⁸ Ωm; and  (92)

Q=Q _(W/ft)/0.3048 W/m;  (93)

where ρ_(μΩcm) denotes the DC resistivity of the heater core expressedin μΩcm and Q_(W/ft) is the heat flux per unit length expressed in W/ft.The following results may be obtained for the magnetic field H and thecore radius a:

H=51.096{Q _(W/ft)/(ρ_(μΩcm)τ)}^(1/2) A/cm; and  (94)

a=0.6457{1−(1−τ⁻¹)^(1/2)}⁻¹(ρ_(μΩcm)/μ_(r) ^(eff))^(1/2) cm.  (95)

Below the Curie point and with fields high enough to saturate thematerial, expect:

μ_(r) ^(eff)=1+M _(S)(T)/H.  (96)

In a regime where the magnetization is approaching saturation and theeffective permeability is falling from its maximum value, the followingrelation yields a good description of the relation between μ_(r) ^(eff)and H:

μ_(r) ^(eff) =CH ^(−β);  (97)

with β close to but less than unity. Substituting EQN. 94 into EQN. 97,and the latter into EQN. 95 obtains:

a=0.6497(51.096)^(β/2){1−(1−τ⁻¹)^(1/2)}⁻¹τ^(−β/4)ρ_(μΩcm) ^((1/2−β/4)) Q_(W/ft) ^(β/4) /C ^(1/2) (cm).  (98)

Expressing EQN. 98 in terms of a diameter D in inches, multiply EQN. 98by 2/2.54 to yield:

D=0.5116(51.096)^(β/2){1−(1−τ⁻¹)^(1/2)}⁻¹τ^(−β/4)ρ_(μΩcm) ^((1/2−β/4)) Q_(W/ft) ^(β/4) /C ^(1/2) (in).  (99)

The above equations may be used to determine plots of relative magneticpermeability versus magnetic field for several materials. Examplematerials are 446SS (Curie point temperature of 604° C.), 410SS (Curiepoint temperature of 727° C.), and the alloy Invar 36 (36% Ni in Fe,with a Curie point temperature of 279° C.). Plots of data of measuredvalues of the relative magnetic permeability versus magnetic field forthese materials are shown in FIG. 154 and in FIG. 155, where curves thatfit to the form in EQN. 97 are also depicted. Values of the parameters Cand β are tabulated in TABLE 11 below. TABLE 11 lists values of thecoefficients appearing in EQN. 97 for three materials depicted in FIGS.154 and 155.

TABLE 11 Material C (A/m)^(β) β 446SS 6736 0.8 410SS 10770 0.9 Invar 364005 0.8387

In FIG. 154, curve 1226 is data for 446SS at 371° C.; curve 1228 is datafor 446SS at 538° C.; curve 1230 is a curve fit calculated for 446SSusing EQN. 97; curve 1232 is data for 410SS at 538° C.; curve 1234 isdata for 410SS at 677° C.; and curve 1236 is a curve fit calculated for410SS using EQN. 97. In FIG. 155, curve 1238 is data for Invar 36 atambient temperature and curve 1240 is a curve fit calculated for Invar36 using EQN. 97.

FIG. 156 depicts the rod diameter required as a function of heat flux toobtain a τ of 2 for each of the three materials above using EQN. 98 anddata from TABLE 11. Curve 1242 is for Invar 36 at ambient temperature;curve 1244 is for 446SS at 538° C.; and curve 1246 is for 410SS at 677°C. The values of C in TABLE 11 are for a surface field on a rod for446SS and 410SS and for a uniform magnetizing field for Invar 36. Anequivalent surface field for Invar 36 may be twice the value of theuniform magnetizing field, C, shown for Invar 36 in TABLE 11. Theequivalent surface field value is used in FIG. 156.

Bench-top measurements have been made for 2.54 cm, 3.18 cm, and 3.81 cmdiameter 410SS rods. FIG. 157 shows the μ_(r) ^(eff) v. H curves forthese three sizes of rod. Curve 1248 is data for 3.81 cm rod, curve 1250is data for 3.18 cm rod, curve 1252 is data for 2.54 cm rod, and curve1254 is calculated from EQN. 97 for a 2.54 cm rod. The data curvescoincide closely with the curve for calculations using EQN. 97, derivedfor the 2.54 cm rod. Thus, predictions may be made about the behavior oflarger rods. Inverting EQNS. 95, 97, and 94 obtains:

μ_(r) ^(eff)=ρ_(μΩcm){0.5116/[D{1−(1−τ⁻¹)^(0.5)}]}²;  (100)

H=(C/μ _(r) ^(eff))^(1/β); and  (101)

Q _(W/ft)=0.000383ρ_(μΩcm) τH ².  (102)

A τ versus Q curve for a heater with a given diameter may then obtainedby choosing a value of τ and then entering it and the values of theheater diameter and DC resistivity successively into EQNS. 100-102 toyield the value of Q_(W/ft). A comparison of the results of carrying outthis procedure with measured values is shown in FIG. 158, which depictsτ versus heat flux (τ versus Q). Curve 1256 is data for a 3.81 cm rod,curve 1258 is data for a 3.18 cm rod, curve 1260 is data for a 2.54 cmrod, curve 1262 is the prediction using EQNS. 100-102 for a 2.54 cm rod,curve 1264 is the prediction using EQNS. 100-102 for a 3.18 cm rod, andcurve 1266 is the prediction using EQNS. 100-102 for a 3.81 cm rod. FIG.158 shows excellent results for the 3.18 cm rod and relatively goodresults for the 3.81 cm rod.

In some embodiments, a temperature limited heater positioned in awellbore may heat steam that is provided to the wellbore. The heatedsteam may be introduced into a portion of a formation. In certainembodiments, the heated steam may be used as a heat transfer fluid toheat a portion of a formation. In an embodiment, the temperature limitedheater includes ferromagnetic material with a selected Curietemperature. The use of a temperature limited heater may inhibit atemperature of the heater from increasing beyond a maximum selectedtemperature (e.g., at or about the Curie temperature). Limiting thetemperature of the heater may inhibit potential burnout of the heater.The maximum selected temperature may be a temperature selected to heatthe steam to above or near 100% saturation conditions, superheatedconditions, or supercritical conditions. Using a temperature limitedheater to heat the steam may inhibit overheating of the steam in thewellbore. Steam introduced into a formation may be used for synthesisgas production, to heat the hydrocarbon containing formation, to carrychemicals into the formation, to extract chemicals from the formation,and/or to control heating of the formation.

A portion of a formation where steam is introduced or that is heatedwith steam may be at significant depths below the surface (e.g., greaterthan about 1000 m, about 2500, or about 5000 m below the surface). Ifsteam is heated at the surface of a formation and introduced to theformation through a wellbore, a quality of the heated steam provided tothe wellbore at the surface may have to be relatively high toaccommodate heat losses to a wellbore casing and/or the overburden asthe steam travels down the wellbore. Heating the steam in the wellboremay allow the quality of the steam to be significantly improved beforethe steam is introduced to the formation. A temperature limited heaterpositioned in a lower section of the overburden and/or adjacent to atarget zone of the formation may be used to controllably heat steam toimprove the quality of the steam.

A temperature limited heater positioned in a wellbore may be used toheat the steam to above or near 100% saturation conditions orsuperheated conditions. In some embodiments, a temperature limitedheater may heat the steam so that the steam is above or nearsupercritical conditions. The static head of fluid above the temperaturelimited heater may facilitate producing 100% saturation, superheated,and/or supercritical conditions in the steam. Supercritical or nearsupercritical steam may be used to strip hydrocarbon material and/orother materials from the formation. In certain embodiments, steamintroduced into a formation may have a high density (e.g., a specificgravity of about 0.8 or above). Increasing the density of the steam mayimprove the ability of the steam to strip hydrocarbon material and/orother materials from the formation.

A downhole heater assembly may include 5, 10, 20, 40, or more heaterscoupled together. For example, a heater assembly may include between 10and 40 heaters. Heaters in a downhole heater assembly may be coupled inseries. In some embodiments, heaters in a heater assembly may be spacedfrom about 7.6 m to about 30.5 m apart. For example, heaters in a heaterassembly may be spaced about 15 m apart. Spacing between heaters in aheater assembly may be a function of heat transfer from the heaters tothe formation. For example, a spacing between heaters may be chosen tolimit temperature variation along a length of a heater assembly toacceptable limits. A heater assembly may advantageously provide uniformheating over a relatively long length of an opening in a formation.Heaters in a heater assembly may include, but are not limited to,electrical heaters (e.g., insulated conductor heaters,conductor-in-conduit heaters, pipe-in-pipe heaters), flamelessdistributed combustors, natural distributed combustors, and/oroxidizers. In some embodiments, heaters in a downhole heater assemblymay include only oxidizers.

FIG. 159 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of downhole oxidizerassembly 1268 including oxidizers 1270. In some embodiments, oxidizerassembly 1268 may include oxidizers 1270 and flameless distributedcombustors. Oxidizer assembly 1268 may be lowered into an opening in aformation and positioned as desired. In some embodiments, a portion ofthe opening in the formation may be substantially parallel to thesurface of the Earth. In some embodiments, the opening of the formationmay be otherwise angled with respect to the surface of the Earth. In anembodiment, the opening may include a significant vertical portion and aportion otherwise angled with respect to the surface of the Earth. Incertain embodiments, the opening may be a branched opening. Oxidizerassemblies may branch from common fuel and/or oxidizer conduits in acentral portion of the opening.

Fuel 1272 may be supplied to oxidizers 1270 through fuel conduit 1274.In some embodiments, fuel conduit 1274 may include a catalytic surface(e.g., a catalytic inner surface) to decrease an ignition temperature offuel 1272. In some embodiments, a portion of fuel conduit 1274 proximateoxidizers 1270 may include titanium. Oxidizing fluid 1276 may besupplied to oxidizer assembly 1268 through oxidizer conduit 1278. Insome embodiments, fuel conduit 1274 and/or oxidizers 1270 may bepositioned concentrically, or substantially concentrically, in oxidizerconduit 1278. In some embodiments, fuel conduit 1274 and/or oxidizers1270 may be arranged other than concentrically with respect to oxidizerconduit 1278. In certain branched opening embodiments, fuel conduit 1274and/or oxidizer conduit 1278 may have a weld or coupling to allowplacement of oxidizer assemblies 1268 in branches of the opening.

An ignition source may be positioned in or proximate oxidizers 1270 toinitiate combustion. In some embodiments, an ignition source may heatthe fuel and/or the oxidizing fluid supplied to a particular heater to atemperature sufficient to support ignition of the fuel. The fuel may beoxidized with the oxidizing fluid in oxidizers 1270 to generate heat.Oxidation products may mix with oxidizing fluid downstream of the firstoxidizer in oxidizer conduit 1278. In some embodiments, a portion ofexhaust gas 1280, which may include unreacted oxidizing fluid andunreacted fuel, as well as oxidation products, may be provided todownstream oxidizer 1270. In some embodiments, a portion of exhaust gas1280 may return to the surface through outer conduit 1282. As theexhaust gas returns to the surface through outer conduit 1282, heat fromexhaust gas 1280 may be transferred to the formation. Returning exhaustgas 1280 through outer conduit 1282 may provide substantially uniformheating along oxidizer assembly 1268 due to heat from the exhaust gasintegrating with the heat provided from individual oxidizers of theoxidizer assembly. In some embodiments, oxidizing fluid 1276 may beintroduced through outer conduit 1282 and exhaust gas 1280 may bereturned through oxidizer conduit 1278. In certain embodiments, heatintegration may occur along an extended vertical portion of an opening.

Fuel supplied to an oxidizer assembly may include, but is not limitedto, hydrogen, methane, ethane, and/or other hydrocarbons. In certainembodiments, fuel used to initiate combustion may be enriched todecrease the temperature required for ignition. In some embodiments,hydrogen (H₂) or other hydrogen rich fluids may be used to enrich fuelinitially supplied to the oxidizers. After ignition of the oxidizers,enrichment of the fuel may be stopped.

After oxidizer ignition, steps may be taken to reduce coking of fuel inthe fuel conduit. For example, steam may be added to the fuel to inhibitcoking in the fuel conduit. In some embodiments, the fuel may be methanethat is mixed with steam in a molar ratio of up to 1:1. In someembodiments, coking may be inhibited by decreasing a residence time offuel in the fuel conduit. In some embodiments, coking may be inhibitedby insulating portions of the fuel conduit that pass through hightemperature zones proximate oxidizers.

A velocity of fuel flow in downstream oxidizers in an oxidizer assemblymay be lower than a velocity of fuel flow in upstream oxidizers in theoxidizer assembly. In some embodiments, a velocity of fuel flowingthrough a fuel conduit may be increased by providing a carrier gas(e.g., carbon dioxide or exhaust gas from an upstream oxidizer) to thefuel conduit. In certain embodiments, a venturi device may be positionedin a fuel conduit proximate an oxidizer (e.g., slightly upstream of anoxidizer) to increase a velocity of fuel flow to the oxidizer. FIG. 160depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of venturi device1284 coupled to fuel conduit 1274. One or more openings in fuel conduit1274 and venturi device 1284 may pull oxidizing fluid 1276 from oxidizerconduit 1278 through at least a portion of the venturi device,increasing a flow rate of fuel/oxidizing fluid mixture to oxidizer 1270.In some embodiments, a single venturi device may be used in an oxidizerassembly. In certain embodiments, more than one venturi device may beused in an oxidizer assembly (e.g., one venturi device for every threeoxidizers, or one venturi device for every oxidizer after the tenthoxidizer). Venturi devices in an oxidizer assembly may promote more evenfuel flow from the fuel conduit to the oxidizers along the length of thefuel conduit.

In some embodiments, oxidizers in an oxidizer assembly may be usedconcurrently. In some embodiments, one or more oxidizers may be in usewhile other oxidizers are allowed to cool. In certain embodiments,oxidizers in an oxidizer assembly may undergo alternate heating andcooling cycles. Valves coupled to a fuel conduit may regulate fuelsupply to one or more oxidizers in an oxidizer assembly. In someembodiments, a control valve coupled to a fuel conduit may allow fuelfrom the fuel conduit to enter one or more oxidizers. FIG. 161 depicts aschematic representation of an embodiment of a portion of oxidizerassembly 1268 including valve 1286 coupled to fuel conduit 1274.Oxidizer assembly 1268 may include one or more valves 1286. In anembodiment, valve 1286 is positioned upstream of oxidizer 1270. In someembodiments, as shown in FIG. 162, valve 1286 may be positioned inoxidizer 1270.

Valve 1286 may control fuel flow to one or more oxidizers 1270. Forexample, valve 1286 may control fuel flow to five oxidizers 1270. Insome embodiments, valve 1286 may open automatically (e.g., the valve maybe self-regulating). For example, when oxidizers 1270 upstream fromvalve 1286 are ignited and start to produce heat, the valve may opensuch that fuel is allowed to flow to one or more oxidizers downstream ofthe valve. Thus, oxidizers 1270 may be ignited sequentially from anupstream end to a downstream end of an oxidizer assembly.

In some embodiments, a valve activated by thermal expansion may be usedto control fuel supply to an oxidizer (e.g., to inhibit overheating ofthe oxidizer). A thermal expansion valve may be positioned upstream ofthe oxidizer to inhibit overheating of the valve. A thermal expansionvalve may include, for example, bimetallic or ferromagnetic material. Insome embodiments, a valve that automatically closes or opens at or neara selected temperature may be used to control fuel flow to one or moreoxidizers in an oxidizer assembly.

FIG. 163 depicts an embodiment of valve 1286 including ferromagneticmember 1288, plug 1290, and springs 1292. In some embodiments,ferromagnetic member 1288 may be a permanent magnet that is able toattract plug 1290. Springs 1292 coupled to plug 1290 may pull the pluginto a seated position to restrict fuel flow into line 1296.Ferromagnetic member 1288 may be positioned proximate plug 1290 (e.g.,opposite seat 1294). The force constant of springs 1292 and the magneticstrength of ferromagnetic member 1288 may be chosen such that theferromagnetic member holds plug 1290 out of seat 1294 to allow fuel toflow into line 1296 when the temperature of the ferromagnetic member isbelow the Curie temperature of the ferromagnetic member (i.e., when themagnetic strength of ferromagnetic member 1288 is high). As thetemperature increases and approaches, becomes, or exceeds the Curietemperature of ferromagnetic member 1288, the magnetic strength of theferromagnetic member decreases such that the force from springs 1292pulls plug 1290 into seat 1294 to restrict or close off fuel flowthrough valve 1286 into line 1296. Valve 1286 may act reversibly. Forexample, as a temperature of ferromagnetic member 1288 falls below theCurie temperature, valve 1286 may reopen as the force of attractionbetween the ferromagnetic member and plug 1290 exceeds the pulling forceof springs 1292 on the plug. In some embodiments, springs 1292 may beconfigured to push plug 1290 into a seated position. In someembodiments, member 1288 may be a magnet and plug 1290 may beferromagnetic.

Oxidizing fluid supplied to an oxidizer assembly may include, but is notlimited to, air, oxygen enriched air, and/or hydrogen peroxide.Depletion of oxygen in oxidizing fluid may occur toward a terminal endof an oxidizer assembly. In an embodiment, a flow of oxidizing fluid maybe increased (e.g., by using compression to provide excess oxidizingfluid) such that sufficient oxygen is present for operation of theterminal oxidizer. In some embodiments, oxidizing fluid may be enrichedby increasing an oxygen content of the oxidizing fluid prior tointroduction of the oxidizing fluid to the oxidizers. Oxidizing fluidmay be enriched by methods including, but not limited to, adding oxygento the oxidizing fluid, adding an additional oxidant such as hydrogenperoxide to the oxidant (e.g., air) and/or flowing oxidizing fluidthrough a membrane that allows preferential diffusion of oxygen.

FIG. 164 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of amembrane that allows preferential diffusion of oxygen positionedupstream of oxidizers in an oxidizer assembly to enhance oxygen contentof the oxidizing fluid. In an embodiment, the membrane may be located inan above-ground portion of the oxidizer conduit to facilitate access tothe membrane. As shown in FIG. 164, oxidizing fluid 1276 may flowthrough membrane 1298. In some embodiments, oxidizing fluid 1276 may beheated to increase a diffusion rate of oxygen through the membrane. Forexample, heat may be transferred from exhaust gas 1280 to oxidizingfluid 1276 in heat exchanger 1300. Increasing a temperature of oxidizingfluid 1276 may increase a diffusion rate of oxygen through membrane1298. Heating of oxidizing fluid 1276 may be limited such that atemperature of the oxidizing fluid does not exceed operational limits ofmembrane 1298. For example, a temperature of heated oxidizing fluid 1276may be kept below about 350° C. Preferential diffusion of oxygen throughmembrane 1298 may increase the oxygen content of enriched oxidizingfluid 1302 delivered to oxidizer assembly 1268. In some embodiments,depleted oxidizing fluid 1304 may be vented to the atmosphere.

A variety of gas oxidizers may be used in downhole oxidizer assemblies.U.S. Pat. No. 3,050,123 to Scott, which is incorporated by reference asif fully set forth herein, describes a gas fired oil-well oxidizer forinitiating combustion in thermal recovery processes. U.S. Pat. No.2,902,270 to Solomonsson et al., which is incorporated by reference asif fully set forth herein, describes a heating member including threesubstantially concentric tubes.

FIG. 165 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of anoxidizer that may be used in a downhole oxidizer assembly. Oxidizer 1270may include a perforated shell. The perforated shell may be tapered atits upstream end to provide a gas-tight fit with fuel conduit 1274. Fuelconduit 1274 may be insulated proximate oxidizer 1270. In someembodiments, a diameter of fuel conduit 1274 may range from about 0.64cm to about 2.54 cm. In certain embodiments, a diameter of fuel conduit1274 may range from about 0.95 cm to about 1.9 cm. In some embodiments,a diameter of the fuel conduit may vary along a length of the fuelconduit. A diameter of the conduit may be greater near an entry pointinto the oxidizer assembly. The diameter of the fuel conduit may bereduced towards a terminal end of the oxidizer assembly. A variablediameter fuel conduit may compensate for fuel used at various oxidizersof the oxidizer assembly.

Fuel orifices 1306 in fuel conduit 1274 may allow fuel 1272 to entermixing chamber 1308. Fuel orifices 1306 may be sized to inhibit cloggingwhile allowing fuel 1272 to flow into mixing chamber 1308 at a minimumdesired velocity. In certain embodiments, fuel orifices 1306 may becritical orifices.

Oxidizing fluid 1276 may flow through oxidizer conduit 1278 along alength of an oxidizer assembly. In some embodiments, oxidizer conduit1278 may have a diameter of about 5 cm to about 15 cm. In certainembodiments, oxidizer conduit 1278 may have a diameter of about 7.5 cm.Oxidizing fluid 1276 may enter mixing chamber 1308 through oxidizerorifices 1310 in mixing chamber 1308. Mixing of fuel and oxidizing fluidmay be achieved in mixing chamber 1308. In some embodiments, staticmixers 1312 may be located in mixing chamber 1308 to promote mixing offuel 1272 and oxidizing fluid 1276. Static mixers 1312 may include oneor more distributor plates and/or vanes. Mixing chamber 1308 may be ofsufficient length to allow thorough mixing of fuel 1272 and oxidizingfluid 1276. In some embodiments, a length of mixing chamber 1308 may befrom about 12.7 cm to about 50.8 cm. In some embodiments, a length ofmixing chamber 1308 may be about 25.4 cm.

Ignition source 1314 may be positioned near an end of mixing chamber1308. Opening 1316, depicted in FIG. 166, may allow placement ofignition source 1314 in oxidizer 1270. A size and/or position of opening1316 may be chosen to accommodate a variety of ignition sources. In someembodiments, ignition source 1314 may be an electrical ignition source.As shown in FIG. 165, cable 1318 may be used to provide current to anelectrical ignition source. Cable 1318 may be positioned outside fuelconduit 1274 and/or outside oxidizer 1270. In some embodiments, a sharedcable may be used to provide current to several electrical ignitionsources in an oxidizer assembly. In certain embodiments, multiple cablesmay be used to provide current to several electrical ignition sources inan oxidizer assembly. For example, current may be provided to eachelectrical ignition source with a separate cable. An oxidizer assemblymay include termination 1320 for an electrical ignition source.Termination 1320 may be proximate opening 1316, shown in FIG. 166. Insome embodiments, termination 1320 may be a mineral insulated cable.

In some embodiments, an electrical ignition source (e.g., a spark plug)may provide sparking with voltages less than about 3000 V. In certainembodiments, an electrical ignition source may provide sparking withvoltages less than about 1000 V (i.e., low voltage sparking). Lowvoltage sparking may allow ignition over a longer distance than highervoltage sparking. In certain embodiments, separate wiring may berequired for each low voltage sparking ignition source.

In some embodiments, an electrical ignition source may be a glow plug.In some embodiments, a glow plug may include materials with differentresistivities, and the glow plug may be used as a thermocouple when notused as an ignition souce. In certain embodiments, a glow plug may be alow voltage glow plug. A low voltage glow plug may operate at voltagesless than about 1000 V (e.g., less than about 630 V). In someembodiments, a low voltage glow plug may operate at less than about 120V (e.g., between about 10 V and about 120 V). In certain embodiments, alow voltage glow plug may operate at 110 V and 5 A.

In some embodiments, a glow plug may be a catalytic glow plug. Acatalytic glow plug may initiate oxidation of fuel at a lowertemperature than a non-catalytic glow plug. In some embodiments, a glowplug may include ferromagnetic material (e.g., 60% Co-40% Fe with a highpositive temperature coefficient of resistance). A maximum temperatureobtainable by the glow plug due to resistive heating of ferromagneticmaterial may be self-limiting above the Curie temperature of theferromagnetic material. For example, when a glow plug containingferromagnetic material heats up to about the Curie temperature of theferromagnetic material, electrical heating of the glow plug iseffectively disabled. The temperature of the glow plug may increasebeyond the Curie temperature due to heat generated by the oxidizer. Ifthe hot glow plug cools down to about the Curie temperature of theferromagnetic material or below the Curie temperature (e.g., if theoxidizer flames out), the glow plug may resume functioning as anignition source.

In some embodiments, a temperature limited heater may be used incombination with a combustion heater or oxidizer (e.g., a downholeoxidizer, a natural distributed combustor (NDC), and/or flamelessdistributed combustor (FDC)). The temperature limited heater may be usedto help maintain combustion in the combustion heater. A temperaturelimited heater may be used to control the temperature of the combustionheater by providing more or less heat inside or outside a certaintemperature range. In some embodiments, a temperature limited heater maybe an ignition source for combustion in a combustion heater (e.g., for adownhole oxidizer). In certain embodiments, a temperature limited heatermay maintain a minimum temperature above an auto-ignition temperature ofa combustion mixture (e.g., fuel and air) being provided to a combustionheater. The temperature limited heater may maintain the minimumtemperature without overheating.

FIG. 167 depicts an embodiment of a downhole oxidizer heater withtemperature limited heater ignition sources. Conduit 1322 may be placedin a heater wellbore or in any subsurface opening. Fuel conduit 1274 maybe located inside conduit 1322. Conduit 1322 and fuel conduit 1274 maybe made of non-corrosive materials such as stainless steel. Oxidizers1270 may be placed along a length of fuel conduit 1274. Oxidizers 1270may be spaced at distances of about 15 m. Orifices 1324 may be locatedproximate oxidizers 1270 to allow fuel 1272 from fuel conduit 1274 tomix with oxidizing fluid 1276 at each oxidizer. Insulated conductor 844may be coupled to fuel conduit 1274.

FIG. 168 depicts an embodiment of insulated conductor 844. Insulatedconductor 844 may include igniter sections 1326. Igniter sections 1326may be located proximate oxidizers 1270, as shown in FIG. 167. Analternating current may be applied to insulated conductor 844 to produceheat in igniter sections 1326 of the insulated conductor. Ignitersections 1326 may include ferromagnetic conductor 812 inside core 814.Other sections of insulated conductor 844 may include only core 814.Core 814 may be copper. Ferromagnetic conductor 812 may includeferromagnetic material with a Curie temperature of about 980° C. (e.g.,a 40% iron, 60% cobalt alloy). Igniter sections 1326 may be about 0.6 min length with about 15 m spacing between ignition sections. Core 814may be enclosed in electrical insulator 792. Electrical insulator 792may be magnesium oxide. Jacket 800 may be made of a non-corrosivematerial (e.g., 310 stainless steel).

In some embodiments, an ignition source with temperature limited heatersmay include a cable with igniter sections. FIG. 169 depicts anembodiment of insulated conductor 844 with igniter sections 1326.Igniter sections 1326 may be between about 5 cm and about 30 cm inlength. Igniter sections 1326 may be spliced into insulated conductor844. Insulated conductor 844 may be coupled to a fuel conduit in anoxidizer assembly. Igniter sections 1326 may be located proximateoxidizers in an oxidizer assembly. A spacing between igniter sections1326 may be substantially the same as a spacing between oxidizers in anoxidizer assembly. Insulated conductor 844 may include core 814. Core814 may be enclosed in electrical insulator 792. Electrical insulator792 may be magnesium oxide. Core 814 may be made of a material able towithstand high temperatures. In some embodiments, core 814 may be copperor nickel. In some embodiments, core 814 may include a combination ofone or more materials. In some embodiments, lead-in or coupling sectionsto core 814 not subjected to high temperatures may be made of anothermaterial (e.g., copper). Jacket 800 may be made of a non-corrosivematerial (e.g., 310 stainless steel).

Igniter section 1326 may include igniter element 1328. Igniter element1328 may be electrically coupled to core 814 and jacket 800 in aparallel heater configuration. In an embodiment, igniter element 1328may include ferromagnetic material. In some embodiments, igniter element1328 may be a cobalt-iron alloy, with a percentage of cobalt rangingfrom about 50% to about 100%. Ferromagnetic material for igniter section1326 may be chosen such that the magnetic transformation temperature ofthe ferromagnetic material is near an ignition temperature of afuel/oxidizing fluid mixture in use. For example, igniter element 1328may be made from an alloy of about 40% iron and about 60% cobalt, with amagnetic transformation temperature of about 980° C. The electricalresistivity of a 40%-iron/60%-cobalt alloy may increase from about 4microohm·cm at room temperature to about 105 microohm·cm at 980° C. Insome embodiments, a heater with one or more igniter sections 1326 may beused to provide heat to a portion of a hydrocarbon containing formation.

A voltage may be applied to insulated conductor 844 to produce heat inigniter sections 1326 of the insulated conductor, which acts as a busbar. As the magnetic transformation temperature of igniter elements 1328is approached, resistance of the igniter elements increases sharply(e.g., by a factor of about 4 to a factor of about 10). Thus, power toigniter elements 1328 is reduced and temperatures of the igniterelements are limited at about the magnetic transformation temperature ofthe igniter elements. Limiting power applied to igniter elements 1328may prolong a lifetime of the igniter elements. In certain embodiments,current limiter section 1327 may be added in series with igniter element1328. Current limiter section 1327 may be a section of relativelyconstant resistivity wire (e.g., nichrome wire). Current limiter section1327 may protect igniter element 1328 when the igniter element is firstenergized while still cold.

In some embodiments, an ignition source may include a mechanicalignition source. A mechanical ignition source may advantageouslyeliminate a need for cables and/or wires from the surface to provideelectrical current to an oxidizer assembly. FIG. 170 depicts a schematicrepresentation of an embodiment of mechanical ignition source 1330.Mechanical ignition source 1330 may include a device driven by a fluid(e.g., air or fuel gas) that rotates or moves and creates a spark orsparks when it rotates or moves. In some embodiments, the mechanicalignition source may be a flint stone. Fluid 1332 may be provided tomechanical ignition source 1330 through tubing 1334. Tubing 1334 mayhave branches 1336 with orifices 1338. Fluid 1332 from tubing 1334 mayflow through branches 1336 and out orifices 1338 to drive mechanicalignition source 1330. Mechanical ignition source 1330 may be positionedproximate oxidizer 1270 in an oxidizer assembly such that sparks fromthe ignition source ignite a fuel/oxidizing fluid mixture in theoxidizer. In some embodiments, fluid supplied to the mechanical ignitionsources may be blocked using a valve, valves, or other mechanisms afterignition of the oxidizers. The fluid supplied to the mechanical ignitionsources may be unblocked if needed. Blocking the fluid supplied to themechanical ignition sources may allow for use of the mechanical ignitionsources only when the mechanical ignition sources are needed.

Mechanical ignition source 1330 may be constructed from materialsdesigned to withstand downhole operating conditions (e.g., temperaturesof about 800° C.). In certain embodiments, mechanical ignition source1330 may operate only when a temperature of the oxidizer falls below aset temperature. For example, mechanical ignition source 1330 mayinclude a ferromagnetic material, such that the mechanical ignitionsource operates only below the Curie temperature of the ferromagneticmaterial. Limiting motion of mechanical ignition source 1330 to timeswhen the mechanical ignition source is needed may extend a lifetime ofthe mechanical ignition source.

In some embodiments, an oxidizer assembly may include a generator thatgenerates a source of electrical power. Fluid flow (e.g., air flowand/or fuel flow) may drive the generator. In certain embodiments, thegenerator may include blades that rotate and generate electricity. Thegenerator may be self-contained. Power generated in the generator alongthe oxidizer assembly may be used to provide current to electricalignition sources (e.g., glow plugs) in the oxidizer assembly withoutrequiring power cables from the surface. The generator may beconstructed from materials designed to withstand downhole operatingconditions (e.g., temperatures of about 800° C.).

In some embodiments, an ignition source for an oxidizer of a oxidizerassembly may include a pilot light. A pilot light may require a low flowof fuel and oxidizer. In some embodiments, the oxidizer may be takenfrom the oxidizer supply for the oxidizer assembly.

In some embodiments, a fireball, flame front, or fireflood propelledthrough the wellbore may be used to ignite oxidizers of an oxidizerassembly. In some embodiments, the fireball, flame front, or firefloodmay be sent forward through the wellbore to the first oxidizer of theoxidizer assembly so that the fireball, flame front or fireflood travelstowards the last oxidizer of the oxidizer assembly. In some embodiments,the fireball, flame front or fireflood may be propelled from proximatethe last oxidizer of the oxidizer assembly so that the fireball orfireflood travels towards the first oxidizer.

In certain embodiments, fuel may be reacted with catalytic material(e.g., palladium) to provide an ignition source in a downhole oxidizerassembly. FIG. 171 depicts catalytic material 1340 proximate oxidizer1270 in a downhole oxidizer assembly. Tubing 1334 may supply fuel 1272(e.g., H₂) through branches 1336 to one or more orifices 1338 proximatecatalytic material 1340. The fuel supplied to catalytic material 1340may react with the catalytic material at close to ambient downholeconditions. Fuel supplied to catalytic material 1340 may cause thecatalytic material to glow. Glowing catalytic material 1340 may igniteoxidizer 1270 proximate the catalytic material. In some embodiments,oxidizers and catalytic material 1340 may be placed in series along afuel conduit in an oxidizer assembly in any order. Fuel supplied to thecatalytic material may be controlled by a valve or valve system so thatfuel is supplied to the catalytic material only when the fuel is needed.

In some embodiments, a pyrophoric fluid (e.g., triethylaluminum) may beused to ignite an oxidizing fluid/fuel mixture in an oxidizer.Pyrophoric fluids may include, but are not limited to, triethyaluminum,silane, and disilane. Pyrophoric fluid may be delivered proximate one ormore oxidizers in an oxidizer assembly through tubing (e.g., tubing 1334depicted in FIG. 171). The pyrophoric fluid may spontaneously combust inthe oxidizing fluid and serve as an ignition source for the oxidizers.

In some embodiments, an exploding pellet (ABB Gas Technology; Bergen,Norway) may be used as an ignition source for oxidizers in a downholeoxidizer assembly. A pellet launching system may be used to launch anexploding pellet along the downhole oxidizer assembly. The pelletlaunching system may be operated manually or automatically. Anautomatically operated pellet launching system may include a magazine.In some embodiments, a pellet from a pellet launching system may have amechanical design with a metallic body. In certain embodiments, a pelletmay have an electronic design with a non-metallic body.

In some embodiments, a pellet launching system may be used to supply anignition source to oxidizers of an oxidizer assembly. A pellet launchingsystem may launch an explosive pellet into a downhole oxidizer assembly.An explosive pellet may include a powder mix selected to deliver sparksof a desired intensity and burning time to one or more oxidizers in theoxidizer assembly. A pellet launching system may use air or other gas topush an explosive pellet through tubing to a point of ignition. Thepellet may be self-activating. A point of ignition may be a marker alonga length of the tubing. For example, a point of ignition for a pelletwith a metallic body may be a magnet. A point of ignition for a pelletwith a non-magnetic body may be a sensor. In some embodiments, anoxidizer assembly may include one point of ignition toward an upstreamend of the oxidizer assembly (e.g., upstream of the first oxidizer). Incertain embodiments, more than one ignition point may be included alonga length of an oxidizer assembly (e.g., an ignition point may be locatedproximate each oxidizer).

As a pellet passes an ignition point, the ignition point may triggerexplosion of the pellet. Explosion of the pellet may produce a shower ofsparks. The sparks may be at a very high temperature. The flow of sparksmay be directionally controlled (e.g., flow into tubing designed toguide the sparks) proximate one or more oxidizers in an oxidizerassembly. FIG. 172 depicts tubing 1334 with ignition points 1342. Tubing1334 and branches 1336 may guide sparks toward oxidizer 1270. Sparks mayignite a fuel/oxidizing fluid mixture in oxidizer 1270. In someembodiments, one pellet may be exploded to provide a long-lasting showerof sparks for all oxidizers in a downhole oxidizer assembly. In certainembodiments, a pellet may be triggered to ignite two or more oxidizersin a downhole oxidizer assembly. In some embodiments, a separate pelletmay be triggered for each oxidizer in a downhole oxidizer assembly. Insome embodiments, spent pellets may be collected in a collector unitpositioned proximate a terminal end of a downhole oxidizer assembly.

As depicted in FIG. 166, oxidizer 1270 may have constriction 1344 toincrease a velocity of fuel/oxidizing fluid mixture as thefuel/oxidizing fluid mixture flows downstream of ignition source 1314.Ignition source 1314 may initiate combustion of the fuel/oxidizing fluidmixture as the mixture flows past the ignition source. In someembodiments, an inner surface of oxidizer 1270 (e.g., an inner surfaceof the oxidizer proximate an end of mixing chamber 1308) may include acatalyst to lower an ignition temperature of the fuel. Screen 1346 mayinhibit the flame from being extinguished by providing expansion roomfor the combustion products. In some embodiments, the flame may residesubstantially in screen 1346. Screen 1346 may have a larger diameterthan mixing chamber 1308. In certain embodiments (e.g., the embodimentdepicted in FIG. 165), screen 1346 may have substantially the samediameter as mixing chamber 1308. Openings 1348 in screen 1346 mayprovide pressure relief by allowing flow of fuel/oxidizing fluid fromoxidizer 1270 to oxidizer conduit 1278. In certain embodiments,oxidizing fluid 1276 from oxidizer conduit 1278 may enter screen 1346through openings 1348.

Oxidizers in an oxidizer assembly may be designed such that a flowvelocity of exhaust gas does not exceed a velocity of the flame issuingfrom the oxidizer, thereby extinguishing the flame. Increasing an areathrough which exhaust gas may exit from a downstream end of an oxidizermay decrease a flow velocity of the exhaust gas from the oxidizer. Insome embodiments, a diameter of a downstream portion of an oxidizer mayexceed a diameter of an upstream portion of the oxidizer to maintain theflow velocity of exhaust gas exiting the oxidizer above a minimumdesired level without exceeding the flame velocity. In some embodiments,as shown in FIG. 166, a diameter of screen 1346 may exceed a dimater ofmixing chamber 1308. In some embodiments, a diameter of a screen mayincrease toward a downstream end of oxidizer (e.g., a screen may bebell-shaped). In some embodiments, openings in a screen may provide anincreased area for exhaust gas to escape from the downstream end of theoxidizer. A number, size, and/or shape of openings in a screen may beselected such that the oxidizer flame is not extinguished by the flow ofthe exhaust gas from the oxidizer.

A length of an oxidizer assembly may be limited by successive depletionof oxygen in oxidizing fluid to oxidizers of along the length of theoxidizer assembly. In some embodiments, two or more oxidizing linesand/or fuel lines may enter into a wellbore. The fuel and/or oxidizersupplied by the lines may be used at various locations along a length ofthe oxidizer assembly. An operational length of an oxidizer assembly maybe extended by including a terminal oxidizer with different operatingcharacteristics than other oxidizers in the assembly. The terminaloxidizer may be operated to combust as much fuel as possible. In someembodiments, a terminal oxidizer may have larger fuel orifices thanother oxidizers in an oxidizer assembly. As shown in FIG. 173, adistance between terminal oxidizer 1350 and adjacent oxidizer 1270 inoxidizer assembly 1268 may exceed a distance between other adjacentoxidizers in the oxidizer assembly. In certain embodiments, a peaktemperature of terminal oxidizer 1350 may exceed an operatingtemperature of oxidizers 1270 in oxidizer assembly 1268. Higher peaktemperatures may be acceptable in terminal oxidizer 1350 because theremay be no downstream components to protect from higher temperatures.

In some embodiments, a terminal oxidizer may be a catalytic oxidizer. Acatalytic oxidizer may operate with a lower oxygen concentration thanother oxidizers in an oxidizer assembly. In certain embodiments, anoxidizer with a higher duty than other oxidizers in the assembly may beplaced in a terminal position. A terminal oxidizer with a higher dutymay deplete the oxygen content of the oxidizing fluid below aconcentration required for other oxidizers in the assembly to operate,thus extending an operational length of the oxidizer assembly.

Alternative conduit configurations may not result in oxygen depletiontoward a terminal end of an oxidizer assembly. In some embodiments,oxidizing fluid may be delivered to an oxidizer assembly through morethan one oxidizer conduit. In certain embodiments, oxidizer conduits ofdiffering lengths may be wound helically around a fuel conduit.Helically wound oxidizer conduits may deliver oxidizing fluid to one ormore oxidizers along a length of the oxidizer assembly without depletionof oxygen toward the terminal end of the oxidizer assembly (e.g., stagedinjection).

In some embodiments, a fuel conduit and an oxidizer conduit may besubstantially parallel. U.S. Pat. No. 2,890,754 to Hoffstrom et al.,which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein,describes a conduit with a baffle that separates a flow of oxidizingfluid from a flow of fuel. Parallel fuel and oxidizer conduits may beused to deliver fuel and oxidizing fluid in stoichiometric amounts toeach oxidizer. With a parallel conduit arrangement, fuel and/oroxidizing fluid supplied to an oxidizer may not be mixed with exhaustgas from one or more upstream oxidizers. Using parallel fuel andoxidizing fluid conduits may allow for an oxidizer assembly of arelatively long length.

In some embodiments, a wellbore that an oxidizer assembly is located inmay have a first opening at a first location on the Earth's surface anda second opening located at a second location on the Earth's surface(e.g., the wellbore may be a relatively u-shaped wellbore). In someembodiments of an oxidizer assembly that is placed in a u-shapedwellbore, fuel flow and oxidizing fluid flow may be directed in the samedirection (e.g., from the first opening towards the second opening). Insome embodiments of an oxidizer assembly that is placed in a u-shapedwellbore, fuel flow and oxidizing fluid flow may be directed in oppositedirections. For example, fuel flow may be directed from the firstopening to the second opening, while oxidizing fluid flow is directedfrom the second opening to the first opening. In some embodiments, fuelmay be introduced in separate lines from both the first opening and thesecond opening. Using two fuel lines may improve fuel distribution alongthe length of the oxidizer assembly.

FIG. 174 depicts a schematic representation of a portion of downholeoxidizer assembly 1268 with substantially parallel fuel and oxidizerconduits. Oxidizers 1270 may be positioned between fuel conduit 1274 andoxidizer conduit 1278. A flow of oxidizing fluid 1276 through oxidizerconduit 1278 and a flow of fuel 1272 through fuel conduit 1274 may becontrolled (e.g., with valves) such that a stoichiometric air to fuelratio is provided to each oxidizer 1270 of oxidizer assembly 1268. Air1352 may be provided to the oxidizer assembly through inner conduit1354. Air 1352 provided to oxidizer assembly 1268 through inner conduit1354 may promote a uniform temperature along the oxidizer assemblythrough convective flow. Air 1352 provided to oxidizer assembly 1268through inner conduit 1354 may inhibit contact of oxidizers 1270 withsurfaces proximate the oxidizers. Exhaust gas 1280 from oxidizerassembly 1268 may heat the formation and return to the surface betweeninner conduit 1354 and outer conduit 1282.

In some embodiments, fuel conduit 1274 may include a valve (e.g., aself-regulating valve) to control fuel flow to one or more oxidizers1270 in oxidizer assembly 1268. FIG. 175 depicts a schematicrepresentation of a portion of downhole oxidizer assembly 1268 withsubstantially parallel fuel and oxidizer conduits. Oxidizer assembly1268 may include one or more valves 1286 coupled to fuel conduit 1274.In an embodiment, valve 1286 is positioned upstream of oxidizer 1270. Insome embodiments, valve 1286 may be positioned in oxidizer 1270. Valve1286 may control fuel flow to one or more oxidizers 1270. For example,valve 1286 may control fuel flow to five oxidizers 1270. In someembodiments, valve 1286 may be opened automatically (e.g., the valve maybe self-regulating). For example, when oxidizers 1270 upstream fromvalve 1286 are ignited and start to produce heat, the valve may opensuch that fuel is allowed to flow to one or more oxidizers downstream ofthe valve.

In certain embodiments, parameters may be monitored along selectedportions of a length of a heater assembly. Monitored parameters mayallow determination of temperature, pressure, strain, and/or gascomposition along the selected length. In some embodiments, monitoredparameters may allow a control system to be established. The controlsystem may operate the heater assembly. In certain embodiments, a heaterassembly may be controlled and/or monitored during start-up to minimizea possibility of downhole deflagration and/or detonation. Individualfixed sensors for monitoring pressures may include one or more cablesfor the sensors. A large number of cables proximate a heater assemblymay interfere with operation of a heater assembly. A fiber optic arraysystem that continuously monitors parameters along a length of a heaterassembly may reduce a number of cables and/or sensors positionedproximate the heater assembly. Continuously monitoring a temperatureprofile over a length of a downhole heater assembly may allow moreeffective control of the heater assembly than temperature measurementsmade at specific locations with fixed thermocouples. A temperatureprofile over a length of the heater assembly may allow measurement ofpeak heater temperatures not detected by thermocouples in fixedlocations.

In some embodiments, a fiber optic system including an optical sensormay be used to continuously monitor parameters (e.g., temperature,pressure, and/or strain) along a portion and/or the entire length of aheater assembly. In certain embodiments, an optical sensor may be usedto monitor composition of gas at one or more locations along the opticalsensor. An optical sensor may include, but is not limited to, a hightemperature rated optical fiber (e.g., a single mode fiber or amultimode fiber) or fiber optic cable. A Sensornet DTS system(Sensornet; London, U.K.) includes an optical fiber that may be used tomonitor temperature along a length of a heater assembly. A Sensornet DTSsystem includes an optical fiber than may be used to monitor temperatureand strain (and/or pressure) at the same time along a length of a heaterassembly.

In some embodiments, an optical sensor may be used to monitor stressalong a conduit (e.g., a liner, a portion of a heater) in an opening ina formation. For example, the optical sensor may be positioned near theconduit in the opening in the formation. As the formation is heated, aneffective diameter of the opening may decrease. As an effective diameterof the opening decreases, walls of the opening may close in on theconduit and/or the optical sensor. Stress and temperature along one ormore portions of the optical sensor may be monitored during heating ofthe formation. In certain embodiments, when stress and/or temperaturealong one or more portions of the optical sensor array reaches aparticular value, heat input into the formation may be decreased toinhibit constriction of the opening in the formation. Thus, selectivelylimiting heat input into the formation may inhibit overstress of theconduit. In some embodiments, stress and temperature data may beobtained (e.g., in a test wellbore) and then used to design heatingsystems that inhibit expansion of material in the formation (e.g.,temperature limited heaters) and/or withstand stresses from expansion ofmaterial in the formation (e.g., a deformation resistant container orliner).

An optical sensor may provide faster response times (i.e., moreimmediate feedback) than fixed thermocouples, pressure sensors, and/orstrain sensors. Fast response times of the optical sensor may allowbetter monitoring and/or control of a downhole heater. Better monitoringand/or control of a downhole heater may allow more efficient operationof a downhole heater assembly by providing more immediate knowledge ofheater status. In some embodiments, fast response times of an opticalsensor used to monitor a downhole heater assembly may allow use of apredictive control system (e.g., a feed forward system).

In some embodiments, an optical sensor may be protected from exposure toa downhole environment. For example, a downhole environment may includehigh temperatures, gas emissions, and/or chemical emissions fromoxidizers that may diminish performance of the optical sensor.Temperatures in a downhole environment during heating may range fromabout 500° C. to about 1000° C. High temperatures may damage the opticalsensor. Emissions from downhole oxidizers may coat the optical sensorand obscure light from entering and/or exiting the optical sensor.Vibration of a heater assembly in a downhole environment may interferein signal transmission and/or damage the optical sensor.

In some embodiments, an optical sensor used to monitor temperature,strain, and/or pressure may be coated and/or cladded with a reflectivematerial to contain a signal or signals transmitted down the opticalsensor. The coating or cladding may be formed of a material that is ableto withstand conditions in a downhole environment. For example, a goldcladding may allow an optical sensor to be used in downhole environmentsup to temperatures of about 700° C. In some embodiments, an opticalsensor used to monitor temperature, strain, and/or pressure may beprotected by positioning, at least partially, the optical sensor in aprotective sleeve (e.g., an enclosed tube) resistant to conditions in adownhole environment. In certain embodiments, a protective sleeve may bea small stainless steel tube (e.g., about 0.16 cm or less in diameter).In some embodiments, an open-ended sleeve may be used to allowdetermination of gas composition at the surface and/or at the terminalend of an oxidizer assembly. An optical sensor may be pre-installed in aprotective sleeve and coiled on a reel. The sleeve may be uncoiled fromthe reel and coupled to a heater assembly. In some embodiments, anoptical sensor in a protective sleeve may be lowered into a section ofthe formation with a heater assembly.

In some embodiments, a fiber optic system may include one or moreinstruments located at the surface to receive and/or transmit signals tothe optical sensor. In some embodiments, data from the instruments maybe transmitted by the instrument and recorded by a central distributedcontrol system (DCS). The central distributed control system may providefeedback control to adjust parameters (e.g., change fuel flow supply toan oxidizer, adjust voltage output for an electrical heater, shut downan oxidizer, activate an ignition source for an oxidizer) and/or to shutdown a heater assembly. For example, a Brillouin scattering, Bragggrating, or a Raman system located at the surface may be used inconjunction with an optical time domain reflectomer (OTDR) to determinea temperature profile along a fiber optic cable. The OTDR may injectshort, intense laser pulses into the optical sensor. Backscattering andreflection of light through the optical sensor may be measured as afunction of time. Characteristics of the reflected light may be analyzedto determine a profile along a length of the fiber optic cable. Datafrom the Brillouin scattering, Bragg grating, and/or Raman system may betransmitted to and recorded by a central DCS. The central distributedcontrol system may provide feedback control to adjust parameters and/orto shut down a heater assembly. A Brillouin system may be used tomonitor parameters at smaller distances between scattering points (e.g.,distances of about 15 cm) than a Bragg grating system. Thus, a Brillouinsystem may be more useful for monitoring parameters along a heaterassembly.

In certain embodiments, continuously monitoring parameter profiles alonga length of a heater assembly may be used as feedback to initiatechanges in operating parameters. Parameters may be monitored andanalyzed to determine an appropriate course of action for the observedconditions. For example, fuel and/or oxidizing fluid supplied to anoxidizer of a multi-oxidizer heater assembly may be changed based ontemperature profiles across the oxidizer and/or the temperature profilesof one or more adjacent oxidizers. As a temperature near an oxidizerapproaches and/or exceeds a maximum pre-determined temperature, the flowof fuel and/or oxidizing fluid supply to the oxidizer may be rapidlydecreased or discontinued to change the temperature at the specificoxidizer. If a selected temperature differential is not achieved acrossan oxidizer within a pre-determined time, or if a temperaturedifferential indicates that the oxidizer flame has been extinguished,the oxidizer may be ignited or re-ignited. In some embodiments,parameters may be transmitted to a central DCS. The central DCS may alsorecord the parameters. The DCS may provide feedback control to adjustparameters and/or initiate a shutdown of a heater assembly.

As a downhole heater assembly undergoes heating and cooling, thermalexpansion and contraction of the assembly may occur. In someembodiments, continuously monitoring a temperature profile over a lengthof a heater assembly may allow positions of individual heaters to betraced as the heater assembly expands and/or contracts. For a downholeheater assembly including oxidizers, monitoring a temperature profileover a length of the downhole oxidizer assembly may allow rapiddetection of hot spots and/or cold spots proximate the oxidizers.Continuous monitoring along a length of the oxidizer assembly mayindicate shifting of hot spots and/or cold spots during a heatingprocess.

In some embodiments, mechanical failures may be prevented by monitoringtemperature and/or pressure profiles of one or more heaters in a heaterassembly. For example, a temperature decrease and/or a pressure increaseover time near a specific oxidizer of a multi-oxidizer heater assemblymay indicate mechanical problems at the specific oxidizer (e.g.,carbonaceous deposits in heater orifices). Fuel flow to the specificoxidizer may be altered and/or discontinued to inhibit failure of thespecific oxidizer. In some embodiments, flow of air and/or fuel to thespecific oxidizer or to a group of oxidizers that include the specificoxidizer may be affected. In some embodiments, the entire heaterassembly may be shut down. The ability to shut down a heater assembly ifpotential failure conditions are indicated may increase a lifespan ofthe heater assembly and/or increase operational safety of the heaterassembly.

FIG. 176 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of adownhole oxidizer assembly coupled to a fiber optic system. Fuel 1272may be provided to fuel conduit 1274. In some embodiments, steam 1356may be provided to fuel conduit 1274 to inhibit coking Fuel conduit 1274and one or more oxidizers 1270 may be positioned in oxidizer conduit1278. Oxidizing fluid 1276 may flow through oxidizer conduit 1278 toreact with fuel 1272 supplied by fuel conduit 1274. A high temperaturerated fiber optic cable protected by sleeve 1358 may be positionedproximate the downhole oxidizer assembly.

Temperatures monitored by the fiber optic cable may depend uponpositioning of sleeve 1358. Sleeve 1358 may be positioned in an annulusbetween two conduits (e.g., between an oxidizer conduit and an outerconduit) or between a conduit and an opening in the formation. In anembodiment, sleeve 1358 with enclosed fiber optic cable may bepositioned along an outer surface of fuel conduit 1274, proximateoxidizers 1270. In some embodiments, sleeve 1358 with enclosed fiberoptic cable may be positioned inside fuel conduit 1274. In certainembodiments, sleeve 1358 with enclosed fiber optic cable may be wrappedspirally near one or more oxidizers 1270 and/or around fuel conduit 1274or oxidizer conduit 1278 to enhance resolution. Average temperaturesmeasured along the outer surfaces of fuel conduit 1274 proximateoxidizers 1270 may range from about 550° C. to about 760° C. Proximateoxidizers 1270, a maximum temperature measured inside fuel conduit 1274may reach about 1000° C.

Fiber optic system 1360 may include an ODTR coupled to the fiber opticcable. In some embodiments, fiber optic system 1360 may include aBrillouin system and/or Raman system. Data from the fiber optic systemmay be transmitted to distributed control system 1362. Distributedcontrol system 1362 may provide feedback control to valves 1364 forregulating flow of fuel 1272 and/or oxidizing fluid 1276 to oxidizers1270. In some embodiments, exhaust gas 1280 may enter exhaust monitor1366. Data from exhaust monitor 1366 may be supplied to distributedcontrol system 1362. Data from exhaust monitor 1366 may be communicatedto distributed control system 1362 and used to achieve a cost effectiveflow of fuel 1272 and/or oxidizing fluid 1276 to oxidizers 1270.

In this patent, certain U.S. patents, U.S. patent applications, andother materials (e.g., articles) have been incorporated by reference.The text of such U.S. patents, U.S. patent applications, and othermaterials is, however, only incorporated by reference to the extent thatno conflict exists between such text and the other statements anddrawings set forth herein. In the event of such conflict, then any suchconflicting text in such incorporated by reference U.S. patents, U.S.patent applications, and other materials is specifically notincorporated by reference in this patent.

Further modifications and alternative embodiments of various aspects ofthe invention may be apparent to those skilled in the art in view ofthis description. Accordingly, this description is to be construed asillustrative only and is for the purpose of teaching those skilled inthe art the general manner of carrying out the invention. It is to beunderstood that the forms of the invention shown and described hereinare to be taken as the presently preferred embodiments. Elements andmaterials may be substituted for those illustrated and described herein,parts and processes may be reversed, and certain features of theinvention may be utilized independently, all as would be apparent to oneskilled in the art after having the benefit of this description of theinvention. Changes may be made in the elements described herein withoutdeparting from the spirit and scope of the invention as described in thefollowing claims. In addition, it is to be understood that featuresdescribed herein independently may, in certain embodiments, be combined.

1-154. (canceled)
 155. A method for treating a hydrocarbon containingformation, comprising: providing heat from one or more heaters to atleast a portion of the formation, wherein at least one of the heaters isin at least one of one or more wellbores in the formation, and whereinheating from one or more of the heaters is controlled to inhibitsubstantial deformation of one or more of the heaters caused by thermalexpansion of the formation against such one or more heaters; allowingthe heat to transfer from the one or more heaters to a part of theformation; and producing a mixture from the formation.
 156. The methodof claim 155, wherein at least one of the wellbores comprises an uncasedwellbore.
 157. The method of claim 155, further comprising controllingthe heating to maintain a minimum space between at least one of theheaters and the formation in at least one of the wellbores.
 158. Themethod of claim 155, further comprising controlling the heating using atemperature limited heater.
 159. The method of claim 155, furthercomprising controlling the heating to maintain a minimum space of atleast about 0.25 cm between at least one of the heaters and theformation in at least one of the wellbores.
 160. The method of claim155, wherein at least one of the heaters is in at least one of thewellbores having a diameter sufficient to inhibit the formation fromexpanding against such heater during heating of the formation.
 161. Themethod of claim 160, wherein the diameter of at least one of thewellbores having a diameter sufficient to inhibit the formation fromexpanding against such heater during the heating of the formation isgreater than or equal to about 30 cm.
 162. The method of claim 155,wherein one or more of the wellbores have an expanded diameter proximateto relatively rich zones in the formation.
 163. The method of claim 162,wherein the expanded diameter is greater than or equal to about 30 cm.164. The method of claim 162, wherein the relatively rich zones comprisea richness greater than about 0.15 L/kg.
 165. The method of claim 162,wherein the relatively rich zones comprise a richness greater than about0.17 L/kg.
 166. The method of claim 155, wherein controlling the heatingcomprises adjusting a heat output of at least one of the heaters suchthat the heat output provided to relatively rich zones of the formationis less than the heat output provided to other zones of the formation.167. The method of claim 155, wherein controlling the heating comprisesadjusting a heat output of at least one of the heaters such that aboutthe heat output provided to relatively rich zones of the formation isless than about ½ the heat output provided to other zones of theformation.
 168. The method of claim 167, wherein the relatively richzones comprise a richness greater than about 0.15 L/kg.
 169. The methodof claim 155, further comprising reaming at least one of the wellboresafter at least some heating of the formation from such wellbores. 170.The method of claim 155, further comprising reaming at least one of thewellbores after at least some heating of the formation from suchwellbores, and wherein the reaming is conducted to remove at least somehydrocarbon material that has expanded in such wellbores.
 171. Themethod of claim 155, further comprising removing at least one of theheaters from at least one of the wellbores, and then reaming at leastone such wellbore.
 172. The method of claim 155, further comprisingperforating one or more relatively rich zones in at least part of theformation to allow for expansion of at least one or more of therelatively rich zones during heating of the formation.
 173. The methodof claim 155, further comprising placing a liner in at least one of thewellbores and between at least a part of one of the heaters and theformation, wherein the liner inhibits heater deformation caused bythermal expansion of the formation during heating.
 174. The method ofclaim 173, wherein the liner comprises a mechanical strength sufficientto inhibit collapsing of the liner proximate relatively rich zones ofthe formation.
 175. The method of claim 173, wherein the liner comprisesone or more openings to allow fluids to flow through the wellbore inwhich the liner is placed.
 176. The method of claim 173, wherein a ratioof an outside diameter of the liner to the inside diameter of thewellbore in which the liner is placed is less than 0.75.
 177. The methodof claim 173, wherein a ratio of an outside diameter of the liner to theinside diameter of the wellbore in which the liner is placed is lessthan 0.5.
 178. The method of claim 173, wherein a ratio of an outsidediameter of the liner to the inside diameter of the wellbore in whichthe liner is placed is less than 0.3.
 179. The method of claim 155,further comprising maintaining a temperature in at least a portion ofthe formation in a pyrolysis temperature range with a lower pyrolysistemperature of about 250° C. and an upper pyrolysis temperature of about400° C.
 180. The method of claim 155, further comprising heating atleast a part of the formation to substantially pyrolyze at least somehydrocarbons in the formation.
 181. The method of claim 155, furthercomprising controlling a pressure and a temperature in at least a partof the formation, wherein the pressure is controlled as a function oftemperature, or the temperature is controlled as a function of pressure.182. The method of claim 155, wherein allowing the heat to transfer fromthe one or more heaters to the part of the formation comprisestransferring heat substantially by conduction.
 183. The method of claim155, wherein the produced mixture comprises condensable hydrocarbonshaving an API gravity of at least about 25°.
 184. The method of claim155, further comprising controlling a pressure in at least a majority ofa part of the formation, wherein the controlled pressure is at leastabout 2.0 bars absolute.
 185. The method of claim 155, furthercomprising controlling formation conditions such that the producedmixture comprises a partial pressure of H₂ in the mixture greater thanabout 0.5 bars.
 186. The method of claim 155, wherein the formationcomprises an oil shale formation.
 187. The method of claim 155, whereinthe formation comprises a coal formation. 188-1690. (canceled)